\      ruN  19  I9in 


BR  516.5  .P5  1916 
Phelan,  Macum,  1874- 
Handbook  of  all 
denominations 


HANDBOOK  of  ALL 
DENOMINATIONS 

CONTAINING  AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THEIR  OR- 
IGIN AND  HISTORY;  A  STATEMENT  OF 
THEIR  FAITH  AND  USAGES;  TOGETHER 
WITH  THE  LATEST  STATISTICS  ON  THEIR 
ACTIVITIES,     LOCATION,     AND     STRENGTH 

NINETEEN    FIFTEEN 


PREPARED  BY  M.  PHELAN 


Second  Thousand 


NASHVILLE.  TENN. 

DALLAS,  TEX.;  RICHMOND,  VA. 

PUBLISHING  HOUSE  OF  THE  M,  E.  CHURCH,  SOUTH 

SMITH  &  LAMAR,  AGENTS 

1916 


Copyright,  1915 

BY 

Smith  &  Lamar 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Introduction   7 

Adventists 9 

Advent  Christians 

Church  of  God  

Churches  of  God  in  Jesus  Christ 

Evangehcal  Adventists  

Life  and  Advent  Union 

Seventh-Day  Adventists lo 

Baptists    12 

Baptist  Church  of  Christ 29 

Freewill  Baptists 27 

General  Baptists   28 

Old  School,  or  Primitive,  Baptists 29 

Original  Freewill  Baptists  28 

Separate  Baptists 29 

Seventh-Day  Baptists   27 

Six-Principle  Baptists  26 

Two-Seed-in-the-Spirit-Predestinarian    30 

United  Baptists  29 

Brethren  Churches   31 

Dunkards 31 

Plymouth  Brethren    34 

River  Brethren   35 

Catholic  Apostolic  (Irvingites)    36 

Catholics   yj 

Christadelphians   38 

Christian  Catholic  Church  in  Zion  (Dowie) 41 

Christian  Scientists    42 

Christian  Union  Churches 47 

Christians,  or  Christian  Connection  38 

Church  of  God  and  Saints  of  Christ  (Colored) 50 

Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem  (Swedenborgian) 51 

Churches  of  God  (The  Winebrennerians) 48 

Churches  of  the  Living  God  (Colored) 50 

3 


HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

Page. 

Communistic  Societies  52 

Amana  Society 52 

Church  Triumphant  (Koreshanity) 53 

Ephrata  Cominunity    54 

Oneida  Community    54 

Shakers,  or  the  Millennial  Church 55 

congregationalists    5^ 

Disciples  of  Christ  60 

United  Christian  Conference  of  the  Disciples  of  Christ.  71 

Evangelical  Churches  72 

Faith  Associations   76 

Friends 73 

Friends  of  the  Temple 78 

German  Evangelical  Protestants  78 

German  Evangelical  Synod 79 

Greek  Catholic,  or  Eastern  Orthodox,  Church 79 

Jewish   Congregations   82 

Latter-Day  Saints,  or  Mormons  85 

Lutherans  95 

Mennonites  99 

Methodists    loi 

Millennial  Dawnists,  or  Russellites 127 

Moravians   (Unitas  Fratrem)    130 

Pentecostal  Church  of  the  Nazarene 133 

Presbyterians  i34 

Associate  Church  of  North  America 148 

Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  the  South 148 

Cumberland  Presbyterian,  Colored 148 

Cumberland   Presbyterians    145 

General  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 147 

Presbyterian  Church,  U.  S 144 

Presbyterian  Church,  U.  S.  A 143 

Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 

and   Canada    148 

Reformed  Presbyterian  Synod 147 

United    Presbyterian    Church 147 

Welsh  Calvinistic   148 

Protestant  Episcopalians  151 

Reformed  Episcopal  156 

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HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

Page. 

Reformed  Bodies   i57 

Christian  Reformed  Church  i59 

Hungarian  Reformed    i66 

Reformed  Church  in  America 158 

Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States i59 

Roman  Catholics  161 

Salvation  Army   176 

Volunteers  of  America   178 

SCHWENCKFELDERS     179 

Social  Brethren   i79 

Spiritualists  i8o 

Unitarians    182 

United  Brethren 186 

Universalists   188 

5 


INTRODUCTION. 

I  HAVE  gone  over  the  manuscript  of  Mr.  Phelan's 
Handbook  of  All  Denominations,  and  I  find  it 
exceedingly  well  done.  It  gives  a  succinct  account 
of  the  origin  and  the  growth  and  the  distinctive 
doctrines  and  polity,  as  well  as  a  statement  of  the 
present  status  and  strength,  of  each  of  the  numerous 
and  various  sects  or  denominations  of  Christendom 
to-day.  This  is  done  in  alphabetical  order,  making 
it  easy  of  reference. 

The  manual  is  so  serviceable  and  so  convenient 

and  so  informing  that  I  have  already  decided  to  use 

it  as  a  textbook  in  my  classes  in  Church  history  in 

the  Southern  Methodist  University. 

Gross  Alexander. 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  July  29,  1915. 

7 


HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOML 
NATIONS. 


ADVENTISTS. 

This  Is  the  general  name  of  a  family  of  denomina- 
tions whose  leading  tenet  is  a  belief  in  the  proxi- 
mate and  personal  second  coming  of  Christ.  The 
movement  began  in  Massachusetts  in  1831,  under 
the  leadership  of  William  Miller,  who  previously 
had  been  a  member  of  the  Baptist  Church.  As  a 
result  of  much  study  of  the  prophecies,  Miller  be- 
came convinced  that  the  second  coming  of  Christ 
was  near  at  hand,  and  he  began  to  lecture  on  the 
subject.  In  1833  he  published  a  pamphlet  entitled 
"Evidences  from  Scripture  and  History  of  the  Sec- 
ond Coming  of  Christ  about  the  Year  1843  ^^^  of  His 
Personal  Reign  of  One  Thousand  Years."  Miller 
made  many  converts  to  his  views,  and  the  doctrine 
announced  in  his  pamphlet  was  widely  proclaimed. 
Upon  the  failure  of  his  prophecy  for  the  year  1843, 
he  fixed  1844 — to  be  exact,  October  22  of  that  year 
— as  the  date  of  the  second  advent.  When  this 
prophecy  failed,  his  followers  became  divided.  It  is 
estimated  that  at  the  time  of  Miller's  death  (1849) 
they  numbered  50,000.  As  a  result  of  various  divi- 
sions, there  are  now  six  bodies  of  Adventists,  who, 
as  a  rule,  simply  await  the  second  coming  of  Christ 
without  attempting  to  fix  a  date  for  it.  All  hold, 
however,  that  it  is  near  at  hand,  and  they  generally 

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HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

look  for  the  personal  reign  of  Christ  on  earth.  All 
agree  also  in  practicing  immersion  as  the  mode  of 
baptism.  The  following  bodies  represent  the  pres- 
ent divisions  of  Adventism : 

I.  Seventh-Day  Adventists. — These  constitute  the 
largest  and  best  organized  body  of  Adventists.  The 
branch  was  organized  in  New  Hampshire  in  1845 
by  a  company  of  Miller's  followers,  who  adopted 
the  belief  that  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  should 
be  observed  as  the  Sabbath.  They  hold  that  all  the 
dead  sleep  in  unconsciousness  until  the  resurrection 
— a  doctrine  popularly  known  as  "soul-sleeping" — 
wdien  the  righteous  will  be  raised  to  eternal  life  and 
the  wicked  destroyed.  Foot-washing  is  practiced 
among  them.  Members  are  expected  to  contribute 
a  tenth  of  their  income  to  the  support  of  the  Church. 
Local  congregations  are  presbyterian  in  government. 
Congregations  are  organized  into  conferences,  and 
these  send  representatives  to  a  general  conference, 
which  meets  annually.  There  are  no  settled  pastors, 
but  traveling  evangelists  visit  the  various  congre- 
gations. The  Seventh-Day  branch,  in  common  with 
other  branches,  devotes  much  attention  to  questions 
of  diet  and  health,  and  they  have  built  a  number  of 
sanitariums.  The  headquarters  of  the  denomination 
were  formerly  at  Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  but  in  1903 
were  removed  to  Washington,  D.  C,  where  pub- 
lishing interests  are  maintained.  The  membership 
is  most  numerous  in  the  States  of  Michigan,  Cali- 
fornia, Kansas,  Minnesota,  New  York,  Ohio,  and 
Wisconsin,  in  the  order  named  ;  but  adherents  are 
found  in  smaller  numbers  in  nearly  all  the  States. 
Missionary  work  is  carried  on  in  Europe,  Asia,  Af- 

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HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

rica,  and  Australia.    Statistics,  1914:  Ministers,  528; 
churches,  1,913;  members,  68,303. 

2.  Advent  Christians. — Formed  in  1861.  They 
agree  with  the  Seventh-Day  body  in  holding  that 
the  dead  are  unconscious  and  that  the  wicked  will 
be  destroyed.  But  they  observe  Sunday  as  the  Sab- 
bath. They  are  strongest  in  the  New  England 
States.  Statistics,  1906:  Ministers,  528;  churches, 
550 ;  members,  26,799. 

3.  Evangelical  Adventists. — This  is  the  oldest 
branch  and  claims  to  be  the  original  body.  These 
differ  from  all  other  Adventists  in  holding  that  the 
dead  are  conscious  and  that  the  wicked  will  suffer 
eternal  punishment.  Statistics,  1906:  Ministers,  8; 
churches,  18;  members,  481. 

4.  Church  of  God. — A  branch  of  the  Seventh-Day 
Adventists,  which  seceded  in  1866  in  protest  against 
accepting  Mrs.  Ellen  G.  White  as  an  inspired 
prophetess.  The  body  has  its  center  at  Stanberry, 
Mo.  Statistics,  1906:  Ministers,  32;  churches,  20; 
members,  611. 

5.  The  Life  and  Advent  Union. — A  small  New 
England  body,  existing  since  1848.  Statistics,  1906: 
Ministers,  12 ;  churches,  12 ;  members,  509. 

6.  The  Churches  of  God  in  Jesus  Christ. — Known 
also  as  Age-to-Come  Adventists.  They  believe  in 
the  restitution  of  all  things,  with  Christ  enthroned 
as  King  on  earth.  They  are  found  chiefly  in  the 
Middle  West.  Statistics,  1913 :  Ministers,  61 ; 
churches,  66;  members,  2,224.  Gain,  1913:  Min- 
isters, 3;  churches,  4;  members,  100. 

Statistics  for  all  Adventist  bodies :  Ministers, 
1,169;  churches,  2,579;  members,  98,927. 

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HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

BAPTISTS. 

"With  the  first  decade  of  the  seventeenth  century 
we  reach  soHd  ground  in  Baptist  history.  Before 
that  the  history  is  more  or  less  a  matter  of  con- 
jecture, and  our  conclusions  are  open  to  doubt;  but 
after  that  we  have  an  unbroken  succession  of  Bap- 
tist Churches,  established  by  indubitable  docu- 
mentary evidence."* 

The  first  Baptist  Church  that  is  known  to  have 
existed  was  formed  in  Holland  in  1608  and  was 
composed  of  English  Separatists  who  had  fled 
thither  to  escape  persecution.  Their  leader,  the 
Rev.  John  Smyth,  there  became  acquainted  with  the 
Mennonite  theory  of  the  Church.  He  adopted  and 
announced  the  view  that  a  Scriptural  Church 
should  consist  of  the  regenerate  only,  who  have 
been  baptized  on  a  personal  profession  of  faith. 
His  rejection  of  infant  baptism  led  to  his  being  dis- 
fellowshiped  by  his  flock.  He  then,  with  Thomas 
Helwys  and  thirty-six  others,  formed  a  Church 
after  his  views.  Smyth  rebaptized  himself  and  the 
others  by  affusion.  A  Confession  of  Faith  was  is- 
sued, Armlnian  in  theology,  but  distinct  in  its  claim 
that  :.  Church  should  be  composed  only  of  baptized 
believe/s  and  that  "only  such  should  taste  of  the 
Lord'r,  Supp:ir."  Smyth  was  soon  afterwards  ex- 
pelled from  the  Church  he  had  formed  on  account 
of  Pelagian  views,  and  the  congregation  broke  up. 
A  part  of  the  company,  led  by  Thomas  Helwys,  re- 

*H.  C.  Vedder,  "A  Short  History  of  the  Baptists,"  a  book 
described  as  of  "scholarly  accuracy,"  and  for  this  reason  it  is 
followed  mainly  in  tracing  the  early  history  of  the  Baptists. 

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HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

turned  to  England  and  in  1611  formed  in  London 
the  first  Church  of  this  faith  on  Enghsh  soil.  They 
came  to  be  called  General  Baptists  on  account  of 
their  belief  in  a  general,  or  universal,  atonement. 
In  1644  there  were  forty-seven  of  these  congrega- 
tions in  England. 

The  Particular  Baptists  originated  in  1633,  when 
several  members  of  a  Separatist  congregation  in 
London  w^ithdrev^,  on  account  of  their  disbelief  in 
infant  baptism,  and  formed  a  nev^  congregation. 
In  1640  there  was  a  further  division  in  this  second 
congregation  when  a  part  of  the  membership  with- 
drew and  adopted  immersion  as  the  mode  of  bap- 
tism. There  being  none  of  their  number  who  had 
received  such  baptism,  and  "none  having  so  prac- 
ticed it  in  England  to  professed  believers,"  they 
sent  one  of  their  number,  Richard  Blunt,  to  Holland 
to  receive  immersion  at  the  hands  of  the  Mennonites 
(who  had  adopted  immersion  in  1619).  Blunt  re- 
turned to  England  and  began  practicing  immersion 
in  1641.  In  1644  seven  Churches  of  this  branch 
united  in  a  Confession  of  Faith.  These  congrega- 
tions came  to  be  called  the  Calvinistic,  or  Particular, 
Baptists  on  account  of  their  belief  in  a  limited 
atonement. 

The  name  Baptist  as  a  denominational  title  was 
first  used  about  1644  and  was  applied  only  to  those 
congregations  which  practiced  immersion.  The 
Arminian,  or  General,  Baptists  gradually  adopted 
the  practice  of  immersion,  although  some  of  their 
congregations  continued  to  baptize  by  afifuslon  as 
late  as  1653. 

The  Confession  of  Faith  adopted  in  1644  is  one 
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HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

of  the  chief  landmarks  of  Baptist  history.  It  was 
composed  of  fifty  articles.  It  declares  baptism  to 
be  "an  ordinance  of  the  New  Testament,  to  be  dis- 
pensed upon  persons  professing  faith,"  and  that 
only  such  should  be  admitted  to  the  Lord's  Supper. 
"The  way  and  manner  of  dispensing  this  ordinance 
is  dipping  or  plunging  the  body  under  water;  it 
being  a  sign,  it  must  answer  the  thing  signified, 
which  is  that  interest  the  saints  have  in  the  death, 
burial,  and  resurrection  of  Christ."  The  Confession 
is  explicit  in  the  advocacy  of  religious  liberty  as  the 
right,  and  of  good  citizenship  as  the  duty,  of  every 
Christian  man. 

Baptists  did  not  themselves  enjoy  the  religious 
liberty  which  they  advocated.  Following  the 
Restoration  in  1660,  Baptists,  with  other  Dissenters, 
were  harshly  treated.  If  they  kept  perfectly  quiet, 
they  were  not  molested;  but  if  they  assembled  for 
religious  meetings,  they  became  violators  of  the 
law,  and  the  man  who  preached  to  them  usually  suf- 
fered severe  penalties.  The  best-known  victim  of 
such  treatment  was  John  Bunyan.  Although  Bun- 
yan  was  never  an  orthodox  Baptist  (he  repudiated 
the  name  and  wished  to  be  called  simply  a  Christian 
and  was  guilty  of  numerous  other  deflections  from 
Baptist  practice),  he  is  generally  classed  as  a  Bap- 
tist. He  spent  at  different  times  nearly  thirteen 
years  in  prison  for  the  crime  of  preaching.  It  was 
to  his  third  and  last  imprisonment  that  we  owe  his 
immortal  allegory,  "The  Pilgrim's  Progress." 

After  1689  Baptists  were  given  a  larger  measure 
of  toleration  than  they  had  ever  known,  but  instead 
of  growth  there  followed  a  period  of  languishment 

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HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

and  decay.  Fifty  years  after  the  passage  of  the 
Act  of  Toleration  the  Baptists  were  scarcely  more 
numerous  than  they  had  been  before  toleration  was 
granted,  while  as  to  their  spiritual  condition  ''they 
had  dwindled  to  a  painful  state  of  deadness  and  in- 
efficiency." Extreme  Calvinistic  views  came  to  pre- 
vail in  the  Particular  Churches,  which  discouraged 
all  evangelistic  efforts  among  the  unconverted. 
Among  the  General  Baptists,  Socinian  views  made 
rapid  progress,  and  the  Churches  became  largely 
Unitarian  in  their  beliefs.  This  was  followed  by 
worldliness,  lax  discipline,  and  superficial  preaching, 
and  the  members  fell  away  in  large  numbers. 

A  new  era  in  Baptist  history  began  as  a  result  of 
the  Wesleyan  revival  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Baptists  participated  in  the  general  awakening,  and 
there  began  a  new  era  of  growth,  of  zeal,  and  of 
missionary  activity  which  has  continued  to  the  pres- 
ent time.  The  greatest  name  belonging  to  this 
period  of  Baptist  history  is  William  Carey,  who 
combined  the  occupations  of  cobbler,  school-teacher, 
and  Baptist  preacher.  Carey  became  awakened  on 
the  condition  of  the  heathen  and  the  duty  of  Chris- 
tians to  go  to  their  relief.  An  Illustration  of  the  Cal- 
vinistic temper  of  the  age  Is  found  In  the  authentic 
story  of  how  once,  when  Carey  attempted  to  speak 
on  the  subject  next  to  his  heart  to  a  Baptist  gather- 
ing, he  was  sternly  told  to  "sit  down,  young  man. 
When  the  Lord  gets  ready  to  convert  the  heathen, 
he  will  do  It  without  your  help  or  mine."  But 
Carey  found  a  different  hearing  at  the  meeting  of 
his  association  at  Nottingham  May  30,  1792,  when 
he  was  appointed  preacher.     His  discourse,  based 

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HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

upon  Isaiah  xliv.  2,  3,  kindled  a  fire  in  a  few  hearts 
which  resulted  in  the  same  year  in  the  organization 
of  the  English  Baptist  Missionary  Society.  In  June 
of  the  following  year  Carey  himself  led  the  way  into 
the  foreign  field,  spending  the  remainder  of  his  life 
in  India.  Carey  is  justly  regarded  as  the  father  of 
modern  missions;  for,  though  the  Baptists  were  not 
the  first  in  modern  times  to  engage  in  this  work, 
**it  was  Carey  and  his  work  that  drew  the  attention 
of  all  Christians  to  it  and  quickened  the  Christian 
conscience  and  that  gave  the  missionary  cause  a 
great  forward  impulse  which  it  has  never  since 
lost." 

The  more  notable  features  of  English  Baptist 
history  during  the  last  century  include  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Baptist  Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land in  1813.  It  is  a  home  missionary  and  social 
organization  and  is  the  most  representative  body  in 
the  United  Kingdom.  In  1891  the  long-separated 
General  and  Particular  Baptists  became  one  body. 
The  century  also  witnessed  a  change  among  English 
Baptists  with  regard  to  the  communion  and  terms 
of  membership.  According  to  Vedder  (and  other 
authorities  agree).  Baptist  principles  are  not  now 
strictly  upheld  and  practiced  in  England.  Large 
numbers  of  Baptist  Churches  have  become  "open" 
on  the  communion  question,  and  many  Churches 
also  have  a  "mixed"  membership — that  is,  Pedo- 
baptists  are  received  on  the  same  terms  with  Bap- 
tists. "In  many  so-called  Baptist  Churches  of  Eng- 
land the  ordinance  of  baptism  [immersion]  is  sel- 
dom or  never  administered.  ...  In  short,  so  ef- 
fectually is  the  Church  disguised  as  frequently  to 

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HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

be  reckoned  by  both  Baptists  and  Independents  in 
their  statistics."  The  Baptist  Churches  in  Wales, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  however,  for  the  most  part 
adhere  to  traditional  Baptist  practices.  Ireland  has 
never  been  a  congenial  soil  for  Baptists.  After  more 
than  two  centuries  of  struggle,  the  island  contains 
less  than  three  thousand  Baptists.  The  entire  king- 
dom, however,  has  never  produced  a  more  illustrious 
Baptist  than  Alexander  Carson,  the  Irish  scholar, 
who  gave  to  the  denomination  its  classic  work  on 
baptism. 

The  American  Baptist  Yearbook  for  1914  gives 
the  following  statistics  for  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land: 

England:  Number  of  churches,  1,988;  ordained  ministers, 
1,367;  members,  263,781. 

Ireland:  Churches,  42;  ministers,  26;  members,  2,881. 

Scotland:  Churches,  151;  ministers,  134;  members,  21,592. 

Wales  and  Monmouthshire:  Churches,  934;  ministers,  589; 
members,  125,402. 

For  all  Europe,  including  Great  Britain,  etc.,  there  are 
reported  616,763  members.  Russia  leads  among  Continental 
countries,  with  60,295;  followed  by  Sweden,  53,828;  Germany, 
44,338;  and  Hungary,  24,428. 

Australasia  has  29,691  members. 

The  Baptist  Churches  in  America  are  not  directly 
descended  from  the  English  Baptists,  but  owe  their 
origin  to  an  independent  movement.  Roger  Wil- 
liams, an  English  Separatist,  on  coming  to  the 
colony  of  Massachusetts  in  1631,  became  at  once  a 
disturbing  element  to  the  authorities  on  account  of 
his  advanced  Puritan  views.  Williams  stoutly  advo- 
cated the  principle  that  the  Church  and  the  State 
should  be  separate  and  independent  each  of  the 
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HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

other  and  that  civil  magistrates  had  no  right  to  en- 
force worship  nor  punish  breaches  of  the  first  table 
of  the  law,  those  commandments  that  relate  to  the 
worship  of  God.  It  is  not  at  all  certain  that  Wil- 
liams imbibed  these  notions  from  the  English  Bap- 
tists nor  that  he  even  knew  of  their  holding  such 
doctrines. 

In  spite  of  his  views,  Williams  was  at  one  time 
minister  of  the  Church  at  Salem.  But  his  pastorate 
was  cut  short  by  his  being  summoned  before  the 
court  in  Boston  and  condemned  to  banishment,  the 
decree  beginning:  "Whereas  Mr.  Roger  Williams, 
one  of  the  elders  of  the  Church  at  Salem,  hath 
broached  and  divulged  new  and  dangerous  opinions 
against  the  authority  of  magistrates."  To  escape 
deportation  Williams  made  his  way  in  midwinter 
through  the  wilderness,  accompanied  by  a  few  ad- 
herents, bought  land  of  the  Indians,  and  founded 
the  colony  of  Providence  on  the  principle  of  civil 
and  religious  liberty.  He  soon  abandoned  his  Pedo- 
baptist  views,  and  on  the  site  now  occupied  by 
Providence,  R.  L,  he  organized  the  first  Church 
of  the  Baptist  faith  in  America  (1639).  Williams 
was  baptized  (probably  by  afifusion)  by  Ezekiel 
Holliman,  one  of  his  company,  and  he  in  turn  bap- 
tized Holliman  and  eleven  others.  Williams  later 
became  doubtful  of  the  authority  of  what  he  had 
done  and  withdrew  from  the  Church  he  had  formed, 
preferring  to  be  called  through  the  remainder  of 
his  life  merely  a  "seeker."  The  Providence  Church 
was  divided  in  1652,  a  colony  going  out  to  form  a 
"Six-Principle"  Baptist  Church.  The  original,  or 
regular,   body   became   extinct   shortly   afterwards. 

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IIAXDBOOK  OF  ALL  DEXOMIX ATIOXS 

In  1771  the  Six-Principle  Church  was  divided,  one 
branch  now  bearing  the  title  of  the  First  Baptist 
Church  of  Providence. 

A  company  of  Welsh  Baptist  immigrants  founded 
the  first  Baptist  Church  in  ^Massachusetts  in  1665. 
The  laws  of  this  colony  were  made  very  strict 
against  the  Baptists,  and  until  1691  persons  of  this 
faith  were  subjected  to  severe  persecutions.  In- 
stances are  on  record  of  ministers  not  only  being 
fined  for  preaching  against  infant  baptism,  but  some 
were  "well  whipped."  Not  until  1833  ^^'^re  dissent- 
ing Churches  in  Massachusetts  made  free  from 
taxation  for  the  support  of  the  "State  Church." 

The  most  important  and  influential  of  the  early 
Baptist  centers  was  the  group  of  Churches  in  and 
around  Philadelphia,  the  first  Church  dating  from 
1688.  In  this  section  Baptists  made  rapid  progress. 
The  first  Association  of  Churches  was  the  Philadel- 
phia Association,  organized  in  1707,  composed  of 
twelve  Churches.  This  Association  later  included 
Churches  in  X'ew  York  colony  and  as  far  south  as 
the  Carolinas.  The  "Philadelphia  Confession  of 
Faith,"  adopted  by  this  Association  in  1742,  was 
strongly  Calvinistic  and  proved  a  turning  point  in 
the  history  of  American  Baptists,  as  thenceforth 
this  type  of  theology  held  the  day.  L'p  to  this  time 
the  Arminian  Baptists  had  been  the  stronger,  es- 
pecially in  X'ew  England.  The  Philadelphia  Asso- 
ciation soon  became  the  leading  body  among  the 
American  Baptists,  a  position  it  has  not  wholly  lost 
to  this  day.  "Pretty  much  everything  good  in  our 
history,"  to  use  the  words  of  a  Baptist  author,  "from 

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1700  to  1850  may  be  traced  to  its  initiative  or  active 
cooperation." 

The  Great  Awakening,  beginning  in  1734,  gave 
powerful  impetus  to  Baptist  evangelistic  effort  and 
home  missionary  work.  But  the  new  movement  met 
serious  opposition  in  the  denomination,  and  two 
parties  arose — the  "Regulars,"  who  disparaged  re- 
vivals, and  the  "New  Lights,"  who  fell  in  with  the 
methods  of  Whitefield.  The  revival  came  to  be 
generally  accepted,  resulting  in  a  rapid  growth,  par- 
ticularly in  the  South.  Baptist  beginnings  in  the 
South  were  less  early  than  in  the  North  and  New 
England ;  but  by  1800,  of  forty-six  associations  in 
the  country,  twenty  were  in  the  South  Atlantic 
States  and  seven  beyond  the  Alleghanies.  The 
number  of  Baptists  in  the  country  at  this  date,  as 
estimated  by  the  Philadelphia  Association,  was 
100,000,  distributed  among  1,200  Churches.  The 
American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society  was 
formed  in  1832. 

The  work  of  foreign  missions  was  undertaken  by 
American  Baptists  in  answer  to  a  clear  providential 
summons.  In  1812  several  missionaries,  among 
them  Adoniram  Judson  and  his  wife,  were  sent  out 
to  India  by  the  Congregational  Board.  On  the  way 
out  Judson  and  his  wife  changed  their  views  on  the 
subject  of  baptism.  Upon  arriving  at  Calcutta  they 
sought  out  some  English  Baptist  missionaries  who 
were  laboring  there  and  were  Immersed.  Another 
American  missionary,  Luther  Rice,  arriving  on  a 
later  ship,  joined  them  In  their  new  faith.  By  a 
change  of  faith  they  had  severed  their  relation  with 
the  Congregational  Board.     There  was  no  Baptist 

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Board  in  America  and  no  interest  in  foreign  mis- 
sions. It  was  resolved  tliat  Rice  should  return  to 
America,  relate  the  story  of  these  new  conversions, 
and  throw  the  new  mission  upon  the  Baptists. 
Rice  reached  Boston  in  September,  1813;  and  as  a 
result  of  the  interest  awakened  by  his  story  there 
was  formed  at  Philadelphia  in  May,  1814,  the  Gen- 
eral Convention  of  the  Baptist  Denomination  in  the 
United  States  for  Foreign  Missions.  Judson  had 
in  the  meantime  gone  to  Burma,  and  there  the  first 
American  Baptist  foreign  mission  was  established. 

Controversy  arising  out  of  this  new  missionary 
movement  produced  a  division  into  two  parties — 
Missionary  Baptists,  who  advocated  foreign  mis- 
sions, and  antimission  Baptists,  who  took  the  name 
of  Primitive  Baptists  (see  below).  The  latter  were 
at  first  equal,  if  not  superior,  in  numbers  to  the 
former.  Another  controversy  which  seriously  af- 
fected the  Baptist  Churches  of  the  South  and  West 
about  181 5  was  the  preaching  of  Alexander  Camp- 
bell and  his  followers.  (See  Disciples.)  All  the 
Churches  of  the  Mahoning  Association,  Ohio,  and 
many  other  Churches  and  scores  of  Baptist  preach- 
ers went  over  to  the  new  movement.  A  period  of 
bitter  controversy  followed,  and  most  of  the 
Churches  in  the  territory  of  the  movement  were 
divided. 

The  division  of  the  Baptists  into  Northern  and 
Southern  occurred  in  1844  and  grew  out  of  the 
slavery  question.  The  immediate  occasion  of  the 
separation  was  action  taken  by  the  Mission  Boards, 
Home  and  Foreign,  both  of  which  at  the  time  of  the 
offending  action  had  a  majority  of  Northern  Bap- 

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tists  in  attendance.  In  1844  the  Foreign  Board  de- 
clared that  it  would  not  appoint  a  slaveholder  as  a 
missionary.  This  was  followed  in  April,  1845,  by 
resolutions  adopted  by  the  Home  Board  declaring 
it  to  be  ''expedient  that  the  members  of  the  society 
should  hereafter  act  in  separate  organizations  at 
the  South  and  at  the  North  in  promoting  the  ob- 
jects which  were  originally  contemplated  by  the 
society."  As  a  result  of  these  declarations,  in  re- 
sponse to  a  call  issued  by  the  Virginia  Foreign  Mis- 
sion Society,  three  hundred  and  ten  delegates  from 
the  Southern  Churches  met  in  Augusta,  Ga.,  in 
May,  1845,  ^^d  organized  the  Southern  Baptist 
Convention.  This  Convention  established  two 
boards,  one  for  foreign  missions  and  one  for  home 
missions. 

Since  the  settlement  of  the  slavery  question  there 
have  been  occasional  efforts  made  for  a  reunion  of 
the  Northern  and  Southern  Baptists,  but  they  have 
met  with  little  favor  either  North  or  South.  "But 
Northern  and  Southern  Baptists  are  not,  as  some 
apparently  delight  to  say,  two  separate  denomina- 
tions. The  Churches,  both  North  and  South,  hold 
substantially  one  system  of  doctrine,  agree  in  all 
important  points  of  practice,  receive  and  dismiss 
members  from  each  other  without  question,  and  are 
in  full,  unrestricted,  uninterrupted  intercommunion," 
says  H.  C.  Vedder. 

While  this  Is  true,  each  branch — Including  the 
Colored  Baptist  branch,  which  Is  classed  as  "Regu- 
lar"— maintains  Its  own  separate  Church  activities. 
Besides  a  general  convention  for  each  body  and 
general   agencies   of   these   conventions,   there   are 

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State  conventions  now  organized  in  every  State, 
which  promote  State  missions  and  other  local  in- 
terests. The  educational  work  of  the  Baptists,  be- 
ginning as  far  back  as  1756,  has  had  a  remarkable 
development  since  1850.  The  leading  educational 
institutions  of  the  Northern  Baptists  are :  Brown 
University,  Providence,  R.  L,  chartered  as  Rhode 
Island  College  in  1764;  Colby  College,  Waterville, 
Me. ;  Colgate  University,  Hamilton,  N.  Y. ;  Des 
Moines  College,  Des  Moines,  la.;  Denison  Univer- 
sity, Granville,  Ohio;  Baptist  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  Morgan  Park,  111. ;  Rochester  Seminary, 
Rochester,  N.  Y. ;  and  Newton  Theological  Institu- 
tion, Newton  Center,  Mass.  The  University  of 
Chicago,  while  its  charter  conditions  that  no  reli- 
gious tests  shall  ever  be  exacted  from  professors  or 
students,  yet  provides  that  the  president  of  the  uni- 
versity and  two-thirds  of  the  trustees  shall  be  mem- 
bers of  Regular  Baptist  Churches.  It  has  the  largest 
endowment  of  any  educational  institution  but  two 
in  the  United  States.  Vassar  College,  Pough- 
keepsie,  N.  Y.,  is  the  best  endowed  college  for  wom- 
en in  the  world.  Baylor  University,  Waco,  Tex., 
Furman  University,  Greenville,  S.  C,  Mercer  Uni- 
versity, Macon,  Ga.,  and  Shorter  College,  Rome, 
Ga.,  together  with  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological 
Seminary,  Louisville,  Ky.,  are  the  leading  educa- 
tional institiitions  of  the  Southern  Baptists.  All 
told,  the  Regular  Baptists,  Northern,  Southern,  and 
Colored,  control  about  one  hundred  colleges  and 
universities. 

Baptists  have  no  Confession  of   Faith  accepted 
as  such ;  but  many  associations  and  local  Churches, 

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particularly  in  the  South,  frequently  publish  a  state- 
ment of  Baptist  principles.  These  generally  follow 
the  Philadelphia  Confession  or  another  known  as 
the  New  Hampshire  Confession,  which  is  briefer. 
While  the  Philadelphia  Confession  is  as  baldly  Cal- 
vinistic  as  the  Westminster  Confession,  which  it 
copies  almost  verbally  in  many  of  its  articles.  Bap- 
tists of  the  present  day  emphasize  only  the  "Perse- 
verance of  Saints"  article  of  the  Calvinistic  faith. 
From  a  published  address  by  Dr.  R.  S.  MacArthur 
the  following  summary  is  taken  as  an  expression  of 
Baptist  beliefs :  "A  fundamental  principle  of  the 
Baptists,  and  one  formerly  held  by  them  only,  is 
that  a  man's  salvation  depends  solely  on  personal 
faith  in  Christ  and  the  resultant  change  in  inward 
character  and  not  on  baptism  and  other  Church 
ordinances.  They  affirm  that  faith  must  be  per- 
sonal, that  no  man  can  believe  for  another,  no  parent 
for  a  child,  and  that,  therefore,  the  Church  is  not 
made  up  of  believers  and  their  children,  except  so 
far  as  the  children  are  themselves  believers.  They 
administer  baptism  only  to  those  who  profess  faith 
in  Christ  and  give  evidence  in  daily  life  of  having 
been  converted.  They  administer  immersion,  the 
baptism  of  the  apostolic  Church,  the  truly  catholic 
baptism,  and  when  this  is  impracticable  they  let  the 
convert  die  without  baptism.  Baptists  do  not  be- 
lieve that  baptism  is  essential  to  salvation,  but  they 
believe  that  salvation  is  essential  to  baptism.  .  .  . 
If  there  is  ever  organic  unity,  it  will  begin  at  the 
baptistery." 

Baptist  Churches  are  defined  as  "bodies  of  bap- 
tized   believers,    with    pastors    and    deacons,    cove- 

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nanted  together  for  religious  worship  and  reHgious 
work."  Only  those  "of  like  faith  and  order"  are  in- 
vited to  partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Churches 
are  congregational  in  government,  but  congrega- 
tions are  associated  in  religious  work,  and  there  is 
a  strong  fraternal  tie  between  different  Churches. 
Men  are  ordained  to  the  pastorate  by  councils  com- 
posed of  ministers  and  representatives  of  neighbor- 
ing Churches.  No  association  or  general  meeting 
of  any  kind  has  any  legislative  authority  or  any 
power  to  bind  local  Churches  or  members. 

The  following  statistics  from  the  American  Bap- 
tist Yearbook,  1914,  show  the  number  of  Regular 
Baptists  by  States.  The  figures  marked  thus  *  in- 
clude colored  members,  usually  reported  as  separate 
associations;  the  figures  for  the  Southern  States 
represent  white  Baptists  only: 

Alabama 199,834  Maryland   12,829 

Arizona    1,936  Massachusetts    80,186* 

Arkansas    111,869  Michigan   45,402* 

California 33,534*  Minnesota   25,41 1* 

Colorado    15,414*  Mississippi  152,665 

Connecticut   26,589*  Missouri  183,589 

Delaware  2,870*  Montana 3,438* 

District  of  Columbia.  32,810*  Nebraska  16,619* 

Florida  47,824  Nevada  447* 

Georgia 278,660  New  Hampshire 9,209* 

Idaho 4,833*  New  Jersey 67,341* 

Illinois    161,074*  New  Mexico 5,077 

Indiana  78,709*  New  York 168,659* 

Iowa   46,077*  North  Carolina 245,306 

Kansas   54,412*  North   Dakota 7,i99* 

Kentucky  235,158  Ohio    95,020* 

Louisiana  61,084  Oklahoma    73,553 

Maine  21,289*  Oregon  14,608* 

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Pennsylvania    141,125*  Vermont 8,994* 

Rhode  Island 19,116*  Virginia   158,133 

South   Carolina 139,713  Washington 17,006* 

South  Dakota 7,681*  West  Virginia 54,623 

Tennessee    186,584  Wisconsin   20,300* 

Texas   327,108  Wyoming  1,436* 

Utah   1,129* 

Germans,  Scandinavians,  and  other  Regular  Bap- 
tists of  foreign  nationality  are  included  in  the  above 
figures.  The  number  of  colored  Baptists  in  the 
Southern  States,  reported  separately,  is  2,093,337, 
of  which  Georgia  leads  with  308,980.  Including 
both  white  and  colored  Baptists,  the  five  States  that 
lead  in  membership  are  all  Southern,  as  follows : 
Georgia,  587,640;  Texas,  490,127;  Alabama,  457,387; 
Virginia,  413,031 ;  North  Carolina,  406,558.  The 
banner  Baptist  States  of  the  North  are  New  York, 
Illinois,  and  Pennsylvania,  in  the  order  named. 

Grand  total  of  all  Regular  Baptists  for  Conti- 
nental United  States,  1914,  5,849,408.  Estimated 
increase  in  membership,  1914,  122,125.  Number  of 
associations,  1,974;  churches,  51,997;  ordained  min- 
isters, 36,109. 

Other  Baptist  Bodies. 

Besides  the  Regular  Baptist  bodies,  which  are 
classified  as  (i)  Regular,  North,  (2)  Regular,  South, 
and  (3)  Regular,  Colored,  there  are  ten  other  Bap- 
tist bodies,  as  follows : 

4.  Six-Principle  Baptists. — They  take  their  name 
from  their  creed,  founded  upon  Hebrews  vi.  I  and  2, 
which  consists  of  six  principles :  Repentance  from 
dead  works,  faith  toward  God,  doctrine  of  baptism, 
the  laying  on  of  hands,  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and 

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eternal  judgment.  The  first  Church  was  organized 
in  Rhode  Island  in  1652.  There  are  eighteen  or- 
ganizations, of  which  twelve  are  in  Rhode  Island. 
There  are  reported  731  members. 

5.  Seventh-Day  Baptists  are  distinguished  mainly 
by  their  observance  of  the  seventh  day  as  the  Sab- 
bath. They  first  appeared  in  England  in  1676,  the 
first  Church  founded  still  surviving.  The  first 
American  Church  was  founded  in  Rhode  Island  in 
1671.  They  have  a  foreign  missionary  society  and 
support  a  publishing  house  and  two  colleges.  The 
denomination  is  represented  in  twenty-four  States, 
being  most  numerous  in  New  York,  Wisconsin,  and 
Rhode  Island.  They  report  seventy-six  churches 
and  7,927  members. 

6.  Freewill  Baptists. — Originated  in  New  Hamp- 
shire in  1780,  when  Benjamin  Randall,  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  joined  by  two  Baptist  ministers,  or- 
ganized a  Church.  They  rejected  the  Calvinistic 
doctrines  held  by  the  Regular  Baptists ;  hence  their 
name.  The  denomination  grew  rapidly,  but  later 
lost  several  thousand  members  to  the  Adventist 
movement.  In  1841  the  Free  Communion  Baptists, 
a  small  body  in  New  York,  united  with  them.  The 
Freewill  Baptists  have  quarterly  and  annual  con- 
ferences and  a  general  conference,  meeting  trien- 
nially,  which  has  charge  of  all  the  general  interests 
of  the  Church.  A  published  Confession,  or  Treatise, 
bearing  the  authority  of  their  general  conference, 
sets  forth  their  doctrines,  among  which  are  that 
"the  call  of  the  gospel  is  coextensive  with  the  atone- 
ment to  all  men"  and  that  "the  truly  regenerate  are 
through  manifold  temptations  and  infirmity  in  dan- 

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ger  of  falling  and  ought,  therefore,  to  watch  and 
pray  that  they  not  make  shipwreck  of  their  faith." 
Immersion  is  the  form  of  baptism ;  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per **is  the  privilege  and  duty  of  all."  The  denomi- 
nation reported  in  1906  87,898  members,  found  in 
nearly  all  the  States ;  but  its  latest  report  shows 
only  about  65,000.  This  apparent  falling  off  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  denomination  is  in  process  of 
union  with  the  Northern  Baptists,  and  at  least  one- 
third  of  its  membership  have  already  been  incor- 
porated with  the  larger  body  and  numbered  with  its 
membership.  Negotiations  looking  to  union  began 
in  1907.  The  basis  of  union  leaves  differences 
"where  the  New  Testament  leaves  them,  to  the 
teachings  of  the  Scriptures  under  the  guidance  of 
the  Holy  Spirit."  All  the  missionary  activities  and 
funds  of  the  Free  Church  have  been  turned  over  to 
the  Northern  Baptist  boards,  and  it  is  expected  that 
the  complete  union  of  the  denominations  will  result. 

7.  Original  Freewill  Baptists  arose  in  North  Caro- 
lina in  1729  by  forming  an  association  separate  from 
the  Regular  Baptists.  They  reject  Calvinism  and 
practice  open  communion.  Foot-washing  and 
anointing  the  sick  with  oil  are  practiced  among^ 
them.  They  are  found  only  in  the  Carolinas.  They 
have  quarterly  and  annual  conferences,  the  latter 
exercising  oversight  of  ministers  and  having  power 
to  settle  difficulties  between  Churches.  The  United 
States  religious  census  of  1906  gives  them  167  or- 
ganizations and  11,864  members. 

8.  General  Baptists. — These  were  originally  simi- 
lar to  the  General  Baptists  of  England,  holding 
Arminian  views  and  practicing  open  communion ; 

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but  most  of  the  early  Churches  of  this  kind  in  Amer- 
ica later  became  Calvinistic.  The  first  association 
of  General  Baptists  was  organized  in  Kentucky  in 
1824.  They  are  strongest  in  Missouri,  Indiana,  Ken- 
tucky, and  Illinois.  They  have  545  churches  and 
33,600  members. 

9.  The  Separate  Baptists  date  from  the  White- 
field  revival  and  were  originally  composed  of  Bap- 
tists who  favored  that  movement,  separating  from 
Baptists  who  opposed  it.  They  are  now  generally 
in  doctrinal  agreement  with  the  Freewill,  or  Free, 
Baptists.  They  are  found  only  in  Indiana,  with 
5,180  members  (1906  report). 

10.  United  Baptists,  the  result  of  a  union  of  many 
Separate  Baptists  with  Regular  Baptists,  this  union 
occurring  mainly  in  Kentucky  and  Virginia.  The 
doctrinal  result  of  the  union  was  a  modified  Cal- 
vinism. Open  communion  is  practiced,  also  foot- 
washing.    The  report  for  1906  is  13,698  members. 

11.  Baptist  Church  of  Christ,  organized  in  Ten- 
nessee in  1808.  They  have  spread  to  six  other 
States.  They  hold  a  modified  Calvinism  and  prac- 
tice foot-washing.  The  strength  of  the  denomina- 
tion is  found  mostly  in  the  region  in  Tennessee 
where  it  originated.  Report  for  1906,  6,416  mem- 
bers. 

12.  Old  School,  or  Primitive  Baptists. — The 
members  of  this  denomination  claim  to  be  the  orig- 
inal Baptists,  from  whose  principles  and  practices  all 
others  have  departed.  This  body  took  its  rise  about 
1835  ^^  organized  opposition  to  foreign  missions, 
Sunday  schools,  and  other  "human  institutions." 
The  opposition  was  founded  in  the  hyper-Calvinis- 

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tic  views  of  the  seceding  Churches,  it  being  their 
view  that  missionary  societies,  Sunday  schools,  etc., 
tended  to  make  the  salvation  of  men  depend  upon 
human  effort  rather  than  on  divine  grace.  An  ar- 
ticle in  the  original  constitution  of  the  Churches  de- 
clines fellowship  ''with  any  Church  or  Churches 
which  support  any  missionary,  Bible,  tract,  or 
Sunday  school  society,"  or  which  advocates  State 
conventions  or  theological  schools  "formed  under 
the  pretense  of  circulating  the  gospel."  The  Primi- 
tive Baptists  do  not  believe  in  an  educated  or  sal- 
aried ministry.  They  practice  foot-washing  and 
close  communion.  Churches  are  divided  in  many 
localities  on  their  Calvinistic  theology,  but  the  main 
body  of  the  membership  and  ministry  holds  fast  to 
the  old  doctrine  of  the  "decrees."  Churches  are  or- 
ganized into  associations,  of  which  there  are  two 
hundred  and  seventy-nine,  fifteen  of  which  are  col- 
ored. Primitive  Baptists  are  most  numerous  in  the 
South,  Georgia  leading  with  18,535  members.  The 
States  next  in  number  are :  Alabama,  14,903 ;  Ten- 
nessee, 13,972;  North  Carolina,  11,740;  Kentucky, 
10,665.  The  total  for  all  the  States  is  102,311  white 
and  35,076  colored  (census  of  1906). 

13.  Two-Seed-in-the-Spirit-Predestinarian. — These 
took  their  origin  and  name  from  certain  theological 
speculations  of  Daniel  Parker,  a  Baptist  preacher 
who  labored  in  Tennessee,  Illinois,  and  Texas.  Par- 
ker sought  to  explain  the  doctrine  of  election  on  the 
theory  that  a  part  of  Eve's  offspring  were  the  seed 
of  God  and  as  such  were  to  be  saved,  and  a  part 
were  the  seed  of  the  devil  and  were  to  be  lost.  All 
the  manifestations  of  good  or  evil  in  man  are  but 

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the  result  of  the  Infusion  of  particles  of  God  or  of 
the  devil  in  them,  and  the  Christian  warfare  is  a 
conflict  between  these  opposing  particles.  The 
Two-Seed  Churches  agree  with  the  Primitive  Bap- 
tists in  their  extreme  Calvinism  and  in  their  opposi- 
tion to  missions,  Sunday  schools,  etc.  The  body  is 
strongest  in  Texas,  Kentucky,  Arkansas,  and  Ten- 
nessee. They  are  credited  with  12,851  members 
(census  of  1906). 

The  total  number  of  Baptists  of  all  bodies  in  the 
United  States,  by  report  of  the  Federal  Council  of 
Churches  In  1914,  was  6,179,622. 

The  total  number  of  Baptists  In  the  world,  by  the 
American  Baptist  Yearbook  for  1914,  was  6,846,286. 


BRETHREN  CHURCHES. 

Three  religious  families  call  themselves  simply 
the  Brethren.  These  are  the  Dunkard  Brethren 
(four  bodies),  Plymouth  Brethren  (four  bodies), 
and  the  River  Brethren  (three  bodies).  They  are 
distinct  in  origin,  but  hold  many  principles  and 
practices  In  common. 

The  Dunkards. — These  are  otherwise  known  as 
Dunkers,  or  Tunkers,  from  the  German  word  "tun- 
ken,"  meaning  to  dip,  which  is  their  mode  of  bap- 
tism. They  are  also  known  as  German  Baptist 
Brethren.  The  body  arose  during  a  religious  awak- 
ening In  Germany  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  when  many  pious  people  be- 
came dissatisfied  with  the  State  Church.  In  1708 
Alexander  Mack  and  eight  companions  of  like  con- 
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victions  organized  a  society  at  Schwarzenau,  West- 
phalia, agreeing  to  follow  the  New  Testament  alone 
as  their  guide.  They  began  the  practice  of  baptism 
by  trine  immersion,  administering  it  to  adults  only. 
They  gained  many  adherents  to  their  ranks,  and 
within  a  few  years  there  were  Churches  with  many 
members  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Holland. 
Persecutions  arose,  and,  encouraged  by  liberal  land 
grants  by  William  Penn,  within  a  few  years  prac- 
tically the  entire  membership  emigrated  to  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  first  congregation  in  America  was  or- 
ganized at  Germantown  in  1723,  with  Peter  Becker 
as  minister.  The  first  division  in  their  ranks  oc- 
curred in  1732,  when  a  small  company,  led  by  John 
Conrad  Beissel,  withdrew  on  account  of  differences 
concerning  the  Sabbath  and  community  of  goods 
and  established  the  Ephrata  Community  (see  under 
"Communistic  Societies").  An  important  incident 
in  the  history  of  the  Germantown  Church  was  the 
editing  and  printing  of  the  first  German  Bible  in 
America,  the  work  being  done  by  Christopher  Saur. 
Some  copies  of  this  publication  are  still  in  existence. 
The  Brethren  spread  rapidly  to  the  West  and  South 
as  the  country  opened  up,  and  now  they  are  found 
in  large  numbers  throughout  the  Central  Western 
States,  their  membership  being  made  up  entirely  of 
Germans. 

In  belief  and  practice,  the  Dunkards  undertake  to 
follow  the  New  Testament,  in  the  main  interpreting 
it  literally  and  applying  it  to  the  minutest  affairs  of 
life.  In  receiving  members,  the  candidate  is  im- 
mersed three  times  in  water,  face  forward,  and  in  a 
kneeling  posture,  after  which  the  administrator  lays 

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his  hands  upon  the  member's  head  and  offers  prayer. 
They  take  the  Lord's  Supper  usually  in  the  eve- 
ning, preceded  by  a  love  feast.  Foot-washing  is 
observed  among  them,  during  which  service  there 
is  an  exchange  of  the  right  hand  of  fellowship,  and 
the  kiss  of  charity  is  given,  the  sexes  being  sep- 
arated during  the  foot-washing  and  attendant  cere- 
monies. In  their  relation  to  the  world  the  Dunkards 
have  strictly  inculcated  nonconformity  and  nonre- 
sistance.  In  agreement  with  these  views  they  have 
generally  settled  in  rural  colonies,  and  they  follow 
the  simplest  pursuits.  Plainness  of  dress  is  en- 
joined, and  differences  among  them  are  settled 
without  going  to  law.  They  take  but  little  interest 
in  politics,  are  opposed  to  secret  societies,  forbid  the 
use  of  tobacco,  and  have  always  been  sternly  op- 
posed to  the  manufacture,  sale,  or  use  of  intoxicating 
liquors. 

The  chief  ecclesiastical  body  of  the  Dunkards  is 
the  annual  meeting,  or  conference.  Here  all  ques- 
tions pertaining  to  doctrine  and  usage  are  settled, 
and  the  action  of  this  conference  is  binding  upon  the 
Church  members.  The  ministry  consists  of  bishops, 
elders,  and  deacons,  all  of  whom  are  elected  by  the 
congregations.  The  ministers  are  untrained  and 
usually  receive  no  stated  salary,  but  pursue  other 
livelihoods  in  connection  with  their  ministry. 

In  1882  the  Dunkards  suffered  a  division  in  the 
separation  of  the  "progressive"  wing  of  the  denomi- 
nation, the  immediate  cause  of  the  break  being  the 
expulsion  in  that  year  by  the  annual  meeting  of 
Henry  R.  Holsinger,  a  leading  progressive,  on  the 
charge  of  speaking  and  writing  disrespectfully  of 
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some  leading  members  of  the  Church.  The  pro- 
gressive element  in  the  Church  were  less  strict  in 
their  association  with  the  world  and  in  adopting  its 
customs  and  advocated  more  extensive  missionary 
and  educational  activities.  The  progressives  for- 
mally organized  as  a  separate  Church  in  a  conven- 
tion held  at  Dayton,  Ohio,  in  1883,  with  represent- 
atives from  about  fifty  congregations.  As  a  result 
of  the  progressive  agitation  in  the  Church  there 
arose  the  Old  Order  Brethren,  the  ultraconserva- 
tives,  who  opposed  all  change  and  refused  to  adopt 
new  methods.  They  separated  themselves  from 
the  main  body,  now  called  the  Conservatives,  in 
1881.  They  have  no  affiliation  with  either  of  the 
other  bodies. 

The  Conservative  Brethren  now  number  (1914) 
3,009  ministers,  990  churches,  and  97,000  members, 
their  largest  strength  being  in  the  States  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Indiana,  Ohio,  and  Virginia.  There  are 
considerable  bodies  also  in  Missouri,  Kansas,  and 
Illinois. 

The  progressives  number  (1914)  200  ministers, 
212  churches,  and  20,700  members,  found  chiefly  in 
Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  and  Ohio.  The  Progressives 
have  extended  their  missionary  work  to  some  of  the 
cities,  as  Washington,  Philadelphia,  and  Chicago. 

The  Old  Order  Brethren  number  (1913)  222  min- 
isters, "^2  churches,  and  3,500  members,  nearly  all  in 
Ohio. 

Plymouth  Brethren. — This  sect  came  into  ex- 
istence at  Dublin,  Ireland,  about  1828,  when  one 
John  Nelson  Darby  formed  a  society  whose  chief 
characteristic  at  the  time  was  a  protest  against  the 

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exclusive  High  Church  principles  and  alleged  dead 
formalism  of  the  Church  of  England.  Another  so- 
ciety was  organized  at  Plymouth,  England,  and  this 
grew  into  such  public  notice  as  to  give  rise  to  the 
name.  The  movement  has  extended  itself  through- 
out the  British  dominions,  to  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope, and  to  the  United  States.  The  Brethren  are 
Calvinistic  in  doctrine.  Millenarian  views  are  gen- 
erally held  among  them.  They  are  very  exclusive 
in  their  practices,  having  no  fellowship  with  other 
denominations.  They  have  Sabbath  gatherings  for 
Bible  study  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  but  they  have 
no  regular  Church  organization,  no  church  build- 
ings, and  no  ordained  ministry.  Adults  only  are 
baptized.  Divisions  have  occurred  among  them, 
growing  out  of  questions  of  doctrine  and  discipline ; 
but  none  of  the  branches  has  ever  taken  a  denomi- 
national name.  For  purposes  of  distinction  they  are 
classified  in  the  United  States  census  reports  as 
Plymouth  Brethren  I.,  IL,  HI.,  and  IV.  The  cen> 
sus  reports  of  1906  credit  all  branches  with  a  mem- 
bership of  10,566.  They  are  most  numerous  in  the 
States  of  New  York  and  Illinois. 

River  Brethren. — These  consist  of  several  small 
congregations,  found  mainly  in  Pennsylvania. 
They  resemble  in  doctrine  and  practice  the  Men- 
nonites,  from  whom  it  is  believed  they  have  sprung. 
^  Swiss  immigrants  formed  the  first  organization  near 
the  Susquehanna  River,  in  Pennsylvania,  in  1750. 
They  baptized  their  members  in  the  river;  hence 
the  name  applied  to  them.  They  baptize  by  trine  im- 
mersion, observe  foot-washing,  and  teach  noncon- 
formity to  the  world.    They  are  distinguished  as  : 

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(i)  Brethren  in  Christ,  the  most  numerous  and 
best-organized  branch.  They  have  district  confer- 
ences and  a  general  conference.    Membership,  3,731. 

(2)  Old  Order,  or  Yorker,  found  in  York  County, 
Pa.    Membership,  423. 

(3)  United  Zion's  Children,  with  749  members. 


CATHOLIC  APOSTOLIC  (IRVINGITES). 

In  1829-30  Rev.  Edward  Irving,  a  minister  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  began  preaching  in  London  on 
the  spiritual  gifts  of  the  apostolic  Church,  main- 
taining that  these  gifts  were  intended  to  be  per- 
petual in  the  Church.  About  the  same  time  a  com- 
pany of  clergymen  and  laymen  of  the  Church  of 
England  began  to  meet  for  Scripture  study  on  the 
second  coming  of  Christ  and  the  office  of  the  Spirit 
in  the  Church.  In  February,  1830,  reports  came 
from  Scotland  that  the  gifts  of  tongues  and  healing 
had  appeared  in  a  certain  Presbyterian  family  living 
near  Glasgow.  Upon  investigation  these  phenomena 
were  declared  to  be  genuine.  Similar  manifesta- 
tions occurred  in  Irving's  Church  in  London.  Irving 
encouraged  these  demonstrations  and  accepted  them 
as  confirming  his  beliefs  and  preaching.  He  was 
deposed  from  the  Church  of  Scotland  on  the  charge 
of  heresy.  But  the  movement,  of  which  he  was  the 
most  conspicuous  advocate,  took  shape,  and  in  1832 
the  apostolic  office  was  revived  and  filled  mainly 
with  the  members  of  the  Anglican  Bible  study  cir- 
cle, above  mentioned,  who  fell  in  with  Irving's  doc- 
trines. The  result  was  the  Catholic  Apostolic 
Church,  found  not  only  in  England  and  Scotland, 

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but  on  the  Continent  and  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

The  Church  recognizes  four  orders  of  ministers^ 
namely,  apostles,  prophets,  evangelists,  and  pastors, 
or  "angels."  The  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit  can  be 
imparted  only  by  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  these 
apostles.  Doctrinally,  the  Church  agrees  with  other 
evangelical  bodies,  but  its  difference  lies  mainly  in 
its  insisting  upon  the  spiritual  phenomena  of  the 
early  Church.  Where  there  are  enough  to  form  a 
congregation,  services  are  held  twice  a  day — at  6 
A.M.  and  5  p.m.  In  the  Sabbath  services  the  Lord's 
Supper  is  observed  with  an  elaborate  ritual.  Each 
Church  is  regarded  as  complete  In  Itself. 

There  are  reported  by  United  States  census  in 
1906  33  ministers,  24  churches,  and  4,927  members. 
They  are  found  mainly  in  the  State  of  New  York. 
There  are  a  few  churches  elsewhere.  There  is  one, 
for  example.  In  Nashville,  Tenn. 


CATHOLICS. 

The  name  "Catholic"  Is  associated  In  the  popular 
mind  only  with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  It 
was  originally  used  to  distinguish  the  Christian 
Church  from  the  Jewish,  the  latter  being  restricted 
to  a  single  nation,  whereas  the  former  was  Intended 
for  the  world.  The  name  has  been  retained  by  the 
Church  of  Rome  In  agreement  with  Its  claim  of 
being  the  successor  of  the  primitive  Church ;  but 
Protestants  deny  that  It  is  applicable  to  Rome  any 
more  than  to  other  Christian  bodies.  (See  "Greek 
Catholics"  and  "Roman  Catholics.") 

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CHRISTADELPHIANS. 

This  is  a  small  but  widely  scattered  body,  dating 
from  about  1850.  John  Thomas,  M.D.,  came  over 
from  England  in  1844.  He  joined  the  Church  of  the 
Disciples,  but  later  withdrew  and  began  to  publish 
certain  views  concerning  Churches,  in  which  he 
expressed  the  belief  that  all  denominations  were 
apostate  Churches.  He  organized  a  number  of  so- 
cieties in  this  country.  Great  Britain,  and  Canada. 
The  societies  took  no  name  until  the  time  of  the 
Civil  War,  when,  alleging  conscientious  scruples 
against  military  service,  in  order  to  be  exempt  they 
had  to  take  a  name.  They  chose  the  name  of 
Christadelphians,  or  ''Brothers  of  Christ."  The  sect 
rejects  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  the  belief  in  a 
devil,  and  personal  immortality.  They  look  for  the 
millennial  reign  of  Christ,  who  will  take  the  throne 
of  David  in  Jerusalem.  They  have  no  ordained 
ministers.  They  had  in  1906  seventy  churches  and 
1,412  members,  found  chiefly  in  Massachusetts,  Illi- 
nois, Virginia,  and  Texas. 


CHRISTIANS,  OR  CHRISTIAN  CONNEC- 
TION. 

This  body  takes  the  name  simply  of  "Christians" 
and  is  often  confused  with  the  Disciples  of  Christ, 
w^ho  generally  call  themselves  by  the  same  name ; 
but  while  they  agree  in  many  respects,  they  are  in 
other  respects  widely  different.  The  denomination 
now  known  as  Christians,  or  (bv  way  of  distinction) 

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Christian  Connection,  grew  out  of  three  independ- 
ent movements  occurring  in  other  Churches. 

In  1793  Rev.  James  O'Kelly,  with  twenty  or  thirty 
other  ministers  and  about  a  thousand  members, 
withdrew  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
The  defection  occurred  in  Virginia  and  North  Caro- 
lina and  grew  out  of  objections  to  the  unrestricted 
appointive  power  of  bishops  and  the  use  of  creeds 
and  disciplines.  They  first  took  the  name  of  Repub- 
lican Methodists,  but  abandoned  this  title  and 
adopted  the  name  of  Christians.  Closely  following 
this  movement,  but  independent  of  it,  Abner  Jones, 
a  Baptist  physician  in  Vermont,  led  a  secession 
among  the  Baptists.  A  Church  was  formed,  taking 
the  name  of  Christian.  In  1804  a  similar  movement 
occurred  among  the  Presbyterians  in  Kentucky,  led 
by  Rev.  Barton  W.  Stone,  who,  with  five  other  min- 
isters, dissolved  a  presbytery  and  agreed  to  be 
known  as  Christians  only.  These  three  movements, 
each  unknown  to  the  other,  were  alike  in  taking  the 
same  name  and  in  claiming  to  take  the  Scriptures 
alone  as  their  only  creed  and  Christian  character 
as  the  only  test  of  fellowship.  As  Churches  multi- 
plied they  became  acquainted,  and  general  meet- 
ings and  cooperation  and  fellowship  developed 
among  them.  General  organizations  for  promoting 
publishing,  educational,  and  missionary  work  fol- 
lowed. The  organization  led  by  Stone  in  Kentucky 
finally  (about  1831)  united  with  the  Disciples,  and 
more  than  fifty  Churches  were  absorbed  by  this  de- 
nomination. In  1854,  owing  to  utterances  against 
slavery  by  a  general  convention  held  in  Cincinnati, 
the  Churches  in  the  South  withdrew  and  formed  a 

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separate  branch.  Since  1894,  however,  the  Southern 
Churches  have  been  represented  in  the  general  con- 
vention, and  they  are  now  recognized  as  one  body. 

The  American  Christian  Convention,  which  meets 
every  four  years,  is  now  the  general  representative 
body  of  the  Church,  having  in  charge  all  its  general 
interests.  Extensive  missionary  work  is  carried  on 
in  the  United  States,  Canada,  Japan,  and  Porto 
Rico.  The  denomination  has  about  twelve  colleges 
and  seminaries,  and  a  publishing  house  at  Dayton, 
Ohio.  Doctrinally,  the  Christians  agree  in  accept- 
ing the  Bible  as  their  only  rule  of  faith.  They  have 
never  formulated  a  confession  or  statement  of  faith. 
They  believe  in  the  avoidance  of  sectarian  names 
and,  like  the  Disciples,  advocate  the  union  of  all 
denominations.  But,  unlike  the  Disciples,  they  hold 
that  Christian  character  is  the  only  test  of  Church 
membership  or  fellowship.  They  allow  large  liberty 
of  conscience  and  insist  upon  the  right  of  private 
judgment  in  all  matters  of  theological  opinion  or 
practice.  They  generally  baptize  by  immersion,  but 
sprinkling  is  allowed  among  them,  and  they  will 
admit  to  communion  and  to  Church  membership 
those  who  have  been  baptized  by  affusion  In  other 
Churches  without  rebaptlzlng.  They  are  congrega- 
tional in  government,  but  have  annual  conferences, 
which  receive  and  ordain  ministers,  but  which  have 
no  legislative  powers. 

The  latest  statistical  reports  (1914)  show  them  to 
have  1,066  ministers,  1,360  churches,  and  113,887 
members.  The  membership  Is  largest  In  Ohio 
(25,000)  and  Indiana  (20,000),  In  the  North,  and  in 
North  Caorllna  (8,000)  and  Virginia  (5,000),  In  the 

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South.  The  denomination  reports  a  gain  in  mem- 
bership of  10,985  during  the  past  two  years,  but  a 
decrease  of  sixty-three  ministers  during  the  same 
period. 


CHRISTIAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  ZION 
(DOWIE). 

This  body  was  organized  in  Chicago  in  1896  by 
John  Alexander  Dowie.  Dowie  had  been  a  Congre- 
gational minister  in  Australia,  but,  becoming  con- 
vinced that  he  possessed  the  power  of  divine  heal- 
ing, withdrew  from  that  communion  and  established 
a  "healing  temple"  in  Melbourne.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1888,  first  teaching  his  doctrines 
on  the  Pacific  Coast,  but  he  later  made  Chicago  the 
center  of  his  activities.  He  gathered  a  considerable 
following  and  organized  them  into  a  Church.  In 
1900  he  founded  Zion  City  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Michigan,  north  of  Chicago,  which  soon  became  a 
thriving  city,  peopled  entirely  by  Dowie's  adherents. 
A  college  was  established  and  many  business  en- 
terprises, including  a  large  lace  industry;  and  over 
all  a  theocratic  government  was  set  up,  with  Dowie 
at  the  head.  An  extensive  propaganda  was  begun. 
Dowie  became  the  idol  of  his  followers.  He  en- 
titled himself  the  "First  Apostle"  and  "Elijah  III." 
In  1903-04  Dowie  led  missionary  campaigns  in  Lon- 
don and  New  York,  with  but  little  success  in  Lon- 
don and  with  disastrous  results  in  New  York.  His 
pompous  claims  and  bitter  antagonism  to  other 
Churches  won  him  only  ridicule.    His  followers  be- 

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came  demoralized,  and  Dowie  returned  embittered 
in  spirit.  He  found  criticism  and  opposition  to  him 
at  Zion  City  on  account  of  his  financial  mismanage- 
ment of  the  city's  affairs.  Charges  of  immorality 
were  also  made.  In  1905  Dowie  visited  Mexico  and 
Texas,  partly  to  recover  his  failing  health  and  partly 
to  look  out  a  location  for  another  colony.  But  dur- 
ing his  absence  he  was  deposed  from  the  office  of 
general  overseer  at  Zion  City,  and  Wilbur  Glenn 
Voliva  was  chosen  in  his  place.  A  receiver  was  ap- 
pointed for  Zion  City,  and  the  colony  was  found  to 
be  bankrupt. 

The  Christian  Catholics,  as  Dowie  named  his 
communion,  hold  the  generally  accepted  principles 
of  Christianity,  and  the  sacraments  are  observed; 
but  prominence  is  given  to  the  doctrine  of  faith- 
healing.  Baptism  is  by  trine  immersion.  A  conse- 
cration service  usually  closes  their  meetings.  At 
the  head  of  the  Church  organization  is  the  general 
overseer,  then  overseers  for  smaller  organizations. 
Missionaries  are  called  the  "seventies,"  who  go  out 
two  and  two  distributing  tracts,  etc.  The  move- 
ment had  at  one  time  (or  claimed)  40,000  adherents. 
According  to  the  best  obtainable  figures,  at  the  pres- 
ent time  there  are  not  one-fourth  of  that  number. 
The  United  States  census  figures  for  1906  (the  year 
following  the  disaster  for  the  organization)  are 
5,865  members. 


CHRISTIAN  SCIENTISTS. 

The  Church  of  Christ,  Scientist,  is  founded  upon 
a  system  of  philosophy,  religion,  and  medicine  for- 

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mulated  by  Mrs.  Mary  Baker  G.  Eddy,  a  full  ex- 
position of  which  is  given  in  her  book,  ^'Science  and 
Health,  with  Key  to  the  Scriptures."  Mrs.  Eddy 
Avas  born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1821.  In  her  girl- 
hood she  joined  the  Congregational  Church,  the 
Church  of  her  parents.  Her  educational  advantages 
were  limited,  and,  if  the  testimony  of  many  of  her 
classmates  is  true,  she  availed  herself  but  poorly  of 
her  school  days.  She  claims,  however,  to  have  had 
superior  advantages  from  private  tutors  and  to  have 
learned  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin.  Critics  outside 
the  ranks  of  her  followers  declare  that  her  unedited 
writings  display  the  poorest  literary  gifts. 

As  a  girl  Mrs.  Eddy  was  weak  in  body  and  hys- 
terical, and  at  no  time  in  her  life  was  she  ever  far 
removed  from  physical  invalidism.  In  early  woman- 
hood she  seems  to  have  attracted  some  attention 
as  a  mesmeric  and  spiritualistic  subject.  She  was 
married  three  times,  once  divorced,  and  in  other 
ways  her  career  was  a  checkered  one.  According 
to  a  friendly  authority,  "her  whole  life  up  to  the  age 
of  fifty  had  been  an  utter  failure,  as  the  world 
viewed  it  and  as  many  of  her  more  Intimate  ac- 
quaintances estimated  It;  but  one  may  search  his- 
tory from  the  beginning  and  have  difficulty  in 
matching  Mrs.  Eddy's  performance  between  the 
ages  of  fifty  and  eighty  In  making  a  million  people 
accept  her  at  her  own  valuation." 

In  1862  Mrs.  Eddy,  at  that  time  the  divorced 
widow  of  Dr.  Patterson,  her  second  husband,  visited 
Dr.  Quimby,  a  mental  healer  (or  popularly  called 
so)  at  Portland,  Me.  She  was  in  such  condition  as 
that  she  "had  to  be  helped  upstairs."     She  claimed 

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to  have  been  healed  and  became  a  student  and 
advocate  of  Quimby's  teachings  and  methods. 
Many  investigators  declare  that  Mrs.  Eddy  obtained 
her  doctrines  from  Quimby  and  that  she  obtained 
from  him — some  say  purloined — manuscripts  and 
notes  on  his  v^ork  which  became  the  basis  of  her 
books.  Her  followers  undertake  to  refute  these 
charges,  and  the  founder  herself  impliedly  asserts 
that  Christian  Science  came  to  her  as  a  revelation. 
In  a  letter  written  by  Mrs.  Eddy  to  Dr.  Quimby 
in  1863  (from  letters  in  possession  of  Quimby's  son 
and  quoted  in  Georgine  Milmine's  "Life  of  Mrs. 
Eddy")  the  following  statement  is  made:  "I  am  to 
all  who  see  me  a  living  wonder  and  a  living  monu- 
ment of  your  power.  My  explanation  of  your  cura- 
tive principle  surprises  people,  especially  those 
whose  minds  are  all  matter."  From  this  and  other 
evidence  it  appears  that  Mrs.  Eddy  was  indebted  to 
Dr.  Quimby  for  a  cure  and  that  he  was  indebted  to 
her  for  an  explanation  of  it,  though  it  is  not  a  mat- 
ter of  record  that  the  Doctor  ever  acknowledged  the 
debt.  Dr.  Quimby  died  in  1866.  Later  in  the  same 
year  Mrs.  Eddy  announced  her  discovery  of  "the 
first  purely  metaphysical  system  of  healing  since 
the  days  of  the  apostles." 

She  began  teaching  and  practicing  her  system, 
but  for  a  number  of  years  she  gained  adherents  but 
slowly.  In  1875  her  book  appeared,  the  first  edition 
of  "Science  and  Health,"  and  the  following  year  she 
organized  the  first  Christian  Science  Association 
with  six  pupils.  In  1879  she  organized  the  First 
Church  of  Christ,  Scientist,  in  Boston,  composed 
of  twenty-six  members,  with  herself  as  pastor.    This 

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became  the  "Mother  Church"  of  the  movement.  It 
now  occupies  a  building  costing  more  than  $2,000,- 
000  and,  according  to  popular  report,  has  45,000 
members.  Other  Churches  were  formed,  called 
branches;  and  while  the  Mother  Church  exercises 
no  superior  authority  over  other  congregations,  they 
usually  follow  the  customs  and  services  observed 
in  the  Boston  Church.  The  cult  has  found  its  fol- 
lowing mainly  in  the  cities.  New  York  City  has 
twelve  Christian  Science  Churches,  the  First  Church 
congregation  being  housed  in  a  temple  costing  more 
than  $1,000,000.  Chicago  has  nine  organizations. 
Churches  are  found  in  nearly  all  the  larger  cities  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  also  in  London  and 
Manchester,  England,  and  Edinburgh,  Scotland. 
There  are  Christian  Science  congregations  also  in 
most  of  the  European  countries,  in  Australia,  South 
America,  Mexico,  and  elsewhere. 

Mrs.  Eddy's  book,  "Science  and  Health,"  purports 
to  reveal  the  science  of  God,  of  life,  and  of  man. 
God  is  the  only  reality.  All  mind,  life,  truth,  love, 
goodness — and  throughout  her  book  these  words 
are  capitalized  and  apparently  endowed  with  as 
much  personality  as  she  ever  attributes  to  God — 
are  but  manifestations  or  reflections  of  God. 
"Man  is  inseparable  from  God,"  but  it  is  denied  that 
he  is  part  of  God ;  he,  too,  is  a  "reflection  of  God." 
It  Is  denied  that  the  principles  of  healing  set  forth 
in  this  system  are  the  same  as  mental  healing,  faith 
cure,  or  heahng  by  prayer.  Sickness  and  all  the  ills 
and  woes  of  life,  including  death,  are  unreal  and 
"are  to  be  overcome  by  spiritual  understanding  of 
divine  reality."    But  the  whole  system  is  extremely 

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metaphysical  and  is  admittedly  confusing  and  diffi- 
cult to  those  who  have  not  embraced  it.  As  a  "key" 
to  the  Scriptures,  one  does  not  have  to  read  far  in 
Mrs.  Eddy's  book  to  discover,  if  he  is  familiar  with 
the  Bible,  that  he  is  here  in  a  strange  land.  Chris- 
tian Science  subverts  every  evangelical  doctrine  and 
robs  the  sacred  Book  of  all  its  majesty  and  mean- 
ing. Mrs.  Eddy  claims  to  have  read  the  Scriptures 
"through  a  higher  than  mortal  sense."  But,  in  the 
language  of  H.  C.  Sheldon  ("Christian  Science,  So 
Called"),  "she  merely  uses  the  Scriptural  texts  as 
pegs  upon  which  to  hang  her  stock  phrases.  Her 
exegetical  notes  might  just  as  well  have  been  at- 
tached to  almost  any  other  writings,  say  to  pas- 
sages of  the  Gilgamesch  Epic,  written  in  old  Baby- 
lon, or  to  chapters  of  the  Upanishads,  composed  in 
ancient  India."  "Science  and  Health,"  first  sent 
forth  as  a  key  to  the  Scriptures,  has  been  elevated 
above  them,  both  in  the  assumptions  of  its  author 
and  in  the  veneration  of  her  disciples.  Mrs.  Eddy 
ordained  the  Bible  and  "Science  and  Health"  as  the 
"impersonal  pastor"  of  her  flock;  but  in  Christian 
Science  Churches  the  reader  of  "Science  and  Health" 
is  called  the  "First  Reader"  and  takes  precedence 
over  the  reader  of  the  Bible,  who  is  designated  the 
"Second  Reader."  In  the  Christian  Science  Church 
its  founder  did  not  scruple  to  displace  the  sacrament 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  with  a  "Galilean  Breakfast," 
putting  into  it  a  meaning  of  her  own. 

The  Christian  Science  propaganda  Is  carried  on 
through  a  Board  of  Lectureship,  attached  to  the 
Mother  Church.  Persons  who  are  qualified  to  teach 
are    given    degrees,    B.S.C.    or    D.S.C.     (Bachelor 

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HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

or  Doctor  of  Christian  Science),  and  they  are  sent 
out  to  deHver  public  lectures  on  the  doctrines. 
There  is  a  well  organized  and  financed  press  bureau, 
which  usually  provides  for  the  publication  at  length 
of  these  lectures  in  the  press  of  the  city  where  they 
are  delivered.  The  Sunday  services  of  the  congre- 
gations consist  of  readings  from  the  Bible  and 
"Science  and  Health,''  hymns,  prayers,  and  the 
benediction.  The  midweek  service  is  devoted  to 
testimonies  and  experiences. 

It  is  one  of  the  rules  of  the  denomination  to  give 
out  no  figures  as  to  membership.  According  to  the 
last  reported  figures  (1907),  there  were  1,347 
"branches,"  or  churches,  and  85,096  members.  In 
a  general  way  it  is  claimed  that  the  Church  now  has 
a  million  adherents  throughout  the  world.  The 
Clerk  of  the  Mother  Church  gives  out  an  estimate 
of  an  increase  of  about  one  hundred  organizations, 
or  new  societies,  a  year  throughout  the  world.  Of 
the  membership,  females  are  in  the  majority  in  the 
ratio  of  three  to  one. 


CHRISTIAN  UNION  CHURCHES. 

These  are  called  the  Independent  Churches  of 
Christ  in  Christian  Union  and  date  their  origin  from 
the  period  of  the  Civil  War.  The  movement  leading 
to  their  formation  began  in  Ohio  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Rev.  J.  V.  B.  Flack,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  and  arose  in  opposition  to 
the  enthusiasm  and  activity  displayed  among  the 
Churches  in  support  of  the  war.  "Political  preach- 
ing, parading,"  and  patriotic  demonstrations  in  sup- 

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port  of  the  government  were  condemned.  Members 
of  many  Churches  who  disapproved  of  the  war  spirit 
in  the  Church  were  gathered  into  separate  congrega- 
tions. The  first  Church  of  the  new  denomination 
was  organized  in  IlHnois  in  1863  or  1864.  A  con- 
vention was  held  in  1864  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  where 
representatives  from  various  denominations  gath- 
ered and  laid  the  foundation  for  the  new  Church. 
After  the  war  closed,  the  Churches  turned  their  at- 
tention to  efforts  to  promote  Christian  unity.  They 
occupy  at  the  present  time  a  position  in  doctrine, 
practice,  and  purpose  similar  to  the  Churches  of 
the  Christian  Connection.  They  reported  in  1914 
354  ministers,  302  churches,  and  15,217  members. 
Their  strength  is  mainly  in  the  State  of  their  origin, 
Ohio,  but  they  are  represented  also  in  the  States  of 
Missouri,  Indiana,  and  Iowa. 


CHURCHES  OF  GOD  (THE  WINEBREN- 
NERIANS). 

This  denomination  was  founded  by  John  Wine- 
brenner  (hence  sometimes  called  Winebrennerians), 
who  had  been  previously  a  pastor  of  the  German 
Reformed  Church  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.  Winebren- 
ner's  earnest  preaching,  in  which  he  denounced  all 
worldly  amusements,  produced  a  revival  in  and 
around  Harrisburg.  Its  progress  was  opposed  by 
his  own  people,  and  he  was  brought  under  charges 
by  officials  of  his  denomination.  Winebrenner 
severed  his  relations  with  his  charge  and  his 
Church,  but  continued  to  preach  and  to  lead  in  the 
revival.     Other   ministers   in   sympathy  with   him 

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met  with  him  in  1830,  and  they  adopted  a  basis  of 
a  new  Church  organization.  The  leading  principles 
of  the  denomination  as  adopted  at  that  time  are: 
(i)  The  believers  in  any  given  place  according  to 
the  divine  order  constitute  one  body,  and  these  are 
God's  household,  or  family,  and  should  be  known 
as  the  Church  of  God ;  (2)  the  divisions  into  sects 
and  parties  under  human  names  and  creeds  is  con- 
trary to  the  New  Testament;  (3)  the  Scriptures, 
without  note  or  comment,  constitute  the  sole  rule 
of  faith  and  practice ;  and  (4)  there  are  three  ordi- 
nances binding  upon  Christians — immersion  in 
water  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity,  washing  the  dis- 
ciples' feet,  and  partaking  of  bread  and  wine  in  com- 
memoration of  the  sufferings  and  death  of  Christ. 

The  organization  of  the  Church  consists  of  elder- 
ships, or  conferences,  of  which  there  are  seventeen, 
found  in  as  many  States.  There  is  a  general  elder- 
ship, composed  of  delegates  from  the  lower  elder- 
ships, which  meets  quadrennially  and  has  charge  of 
the  general  interests  of  the  denomination.  In  local 
affairs  the  Churches  are  presbyterlan  in  govern- 
ment; but  pastors  are  appointed  to  the  various 
charges  by  the  annual  elderships.  In  doctrine  the 
Churches  generally  hold  Armlnian  and  premille- 
narian  views.  The  body  maintains  three  colleges  (at 
FIndlay,  Ohio,  Fort  Scott,  Kans.,  and  Barkeyville, 
Pa.)  and  a  publishing  house  at  Harrlsburg,  Pa. 
Extensive  home  missionary  work  is  carried  on,  and 
missionaries  are  at  work  In  India  and  other  foreign 
fields.    It  has  an  active  woman's  missionary  society. 

Report  for  1913:  Ministers,  509;  churches,  595; 
members,  41,475. 

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CHURCH  OF  GOD  AND  SAINTS  OF  CHRIST 
(COLORED). 

These  are  sometimes  called  the  "Black  Jews,"  on 
account  of  their  fancied  claim  of  being  the  de- 
scendants of  the  lost  tribes.  It  is  held  that  the  lat- 
ter were  originally  a  black  people.  The  sect  owes 
its  origin  to  William  S.  Crowdy,  who  claimed  to  be 
called  of  God  as  a  prophet.  He  founded  his  Church 
in  Topeka,  Kans.,  in  1897.  The  system  of  doctrine 
is  presented  in  "Crowdy's  Manual,"  or  **The  Bible 
Story  Revealed."  The  Jewish  Passover  is  annually 
celebrated  with  a  mingling  of  Jewish  and  Christian 
rites.  No  authentic  figures  of  the  denomination  are 
obtainable,  but  the  claim  is  made  of  about  one  hun- 
dred churches  (seven  in  Africa)  and  about  9,000 
members.  The  largest  church  and  denominational 
headquarters  are  at  Philadelphia. 


CHURCHES  OF  THE  LIVING  GOD 
(COLORED). 

There  are  three  colored  bodies  reported  under 
this  head  in  the  United  States  Census  Bulletin  of 
1906.  No  trace  of  them  can  be  found  in  any  other 
literature.  In  the  reports  of  the  above  3^ear  they 
are  classified  as  follows:  (i)  Church  of  the  Living 
God  (Christian  Workers  for  Friendship),  (2) 
Church  of  the  Living  God  (Apostolic  Church),  and 
(3)  Church  of  Christ  in  God.  The  statistics  for 
the  three  bodies  were :  Ministers,  loi ;  churches, 
68;  members,  4,286. 

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CHURCH  OF  THE  NEW  JERUSALEM 
(SWEDENBORGIAN). 

The  doctrines  set  forth  in  the  writings  of  Eman- 
uel Swedenborg  (born  in  Stockholm,  Sweden,  in 
1688;  died  in  London  in  1772)  form  a  basis  of  the 
union  of  his  followers,  who  are  better  known  as 
Swedenborgians.  The  first  steps  toward  organiza- 
tion began  in  London  in  1782,  when  Robert  Hind- 
marsh,  a  printer,  gathered  a  few  associates  into  a 
society  for  reading  and  studying  the  works  of 
Swedenborg.  This  association  gradually  took  on 
the  forms  of  a  religious  society.  The  result  was  the 
Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem,  named  after  the  New 
Jerusalem  of  the  Apocalypse.  A  general  conference 
was  formed,  which  has  met  annually  since  181 5. 
In  1906  7,256  Swedenborgians  were  enrolled  in 
Great  Britain.  Many  who  are  enumerated  as 
Swedenborg's  followers  have  not  severed  their 
membership  with  other  Churches,  which  is  also 
true  in  this  country. 

The  first  Swedenborgian  society  organized  in 
America  was  in  1792  at  Baltimore.  The  various  so- 
cieties and  Churches  in  the  United  States  and  Cana- 
da are  associated  in  a  general  convention,  which 
meets  annually.  There  are  also  State  associations. 
In  government  the  New  Jerusalem  Church  is  partly 
congregational  and  partly  episcopal,  each  local  so- 
ciety governing  its  own  affairs;  but  there  are  gen- 
eral pastors,  corresponding  to  bishops  in  episcopal 
Churches.  The  service  is  largely  liturgical,  con- 
forming to  the  Book  of  Worship  published  by  the 
general  convention. 

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Swedenborg's  doctrines  grew  out  of  his  experience 
in  which  he  professed  to  have  had  his  spiritual 
senses  opened.  His  experience  was  unique  in  that 
he  did  not  claim  to  have  communication  with  spirits 
nor  to  have  received  visions  or  revelations;  but  he 
professed  through  all  the  later  years  of  his  life  that 
he  was  a  dweller  within  the  spiritual  world;  that, 
being  dead  on  the  side  of  this  world,  he  was  in  con- 
stant association  with  spiritual  beings  as  one  of 
them.  According  to  Swedenborg,  the  Church  which 
Christ  established  came  to  an  end  in  1757,  and  he 
testifies  that  he  witnessed  the  last  general  judg- 
ment at  that  time  in  the  spiritual  world.  A  nevvr 
dispensation  was  introduced,  the  beginning  of  the 
Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem,  prophesied  in  the 
Revelation ;  and  of  this  dispensation  and  Church  the 
writings  of  Swedenborg  contain  the  doctrines. 

The  latest  published  returns  (1912)  credit  this  or- 
ganization with  137  ministers,  157  churches,  and 
9,601  members. 


COMMUNISTIC  SOCIETIES. 

These  embrace  all  societies  or  religious  bodies 
observing  the  communal  life.  Those  now  in  ex- 
istence in  the  United  States  and  that  have,  or  began 
with,  a  religious  basis  are  given.  They  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

The  Amana  Society. — There  are  several  organiza- 
tions of  this  society  which  call  themselves  the 
"True  Inspiration  Congregations."  They  are  located 
at  Amana,  la.  Immigrants  from  Germany  founded 
the  society  near  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  whence  they  re- 

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moved  during  the  next  ten  years  to  their  present 
location.  The  community  was  incorporated  in 
1859  with  provisions  that  all  property  should  be 
held  in  common;  that  agriculture,  manufacturing, 
and  trade  should  furnish  the  means  of  sustenance  : 
and  that  the  surplus  should  be  applied  to  com- 
munal improvements  and  for  educational  and  benev- 
olent purposes.  Persons  joining  the  society  sur- 
render all  property  and  all  claim  to  wages  and  are 
promised  in  return  board  and  dwelling,  support  in 
old  age  and  sickness,  and  are  given  an  annual  al- 
lowance for  clothing  and  other  expenses.  It  was 
formerly  held  that  the  person  at  the  head  of  the 
society  was  under  the  direct  inspiration  of  God. 
The  temporal  government  is  vested  in  thirteen  trus- 
tees, who  are  elected  annually  by  the  male  members 
of  the  society.  Baptism  is  not  practiced,  and  the 
Lord's  Supper  is  observed  only  when  inspired  direc- 
tion Is  given.  Religious  services  are  held  every  day 
in  the  week,  in  which  Bible  study  and  Inquisitorial 
examination  of  the  members  are  prominent.  No 
reports  of  the  society  later  than  1906  are  published. 
At  that  date  the  community  had  1,756  members. 

The  Church  Triumphant  (Koreshanity). — This 
society  has  communities  In  Chicago  and  one  In  Lee 
County,  Fla.  It  owes  its  origin  to  Dr.  Cyrus  Teed, 
who  claimed  to  have  received  a  spiritual  illumina- 
tion in  1870  with  a  revelation  of  the  system  which 
he  has  denominated  "Koreshanity,"  from  Koresh, 
the  Hebrew  form  of  his  own  name,  Cyrus.  The 
Koresh  theology  Is  based  upon  the  claim  that  Teed 
was  the  reincarnation  of  the  Messiah,  and  many 
strange  and  extravagant  doctrines,  both  theological 

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and  scientific,  are  taught.  The  membership  of  the 
communities  is  estimated  at  from  5,000  to  10,000. 
The  1906  census  reports  credit  them  with  two  hun- 
dred and  five  members. 

The  Ephrata  Community. — John  Conrad  Beissel, 
who  withdrew  from  the  Dunkards,  founded  this 
community  in  1732  in  Lancaster  County,  Pa.  It 
was  during  Beissel's  Hfe  a  semi-monastic  order,  with 
many  pecuHarities  of  hfe  and  dress.  Some  years 
after  Beissel's  death  the  remaining  members  became 
incorporated  as  the  Seventh-Day  Baptists,  German. 
They  still  hold  the  land  and  other  property  of  the 
Beissel  community,  but  communistic  principles 
have  been  abandoned.  They  have  about  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  members. 

The  Oneida  Community. — ^This  society  was 
founded  in  1845  by  John  Humphrey  Noyes  at 
Oneida,  N.  Y.  Noyes  had  been  led  to  believe  in  the 
possibility  of  Christians  living  a  sinless  life,  and  he 
advocated  other  doctrines  new  in  those  times.  He 
gathered  a  company  of  disciples  first  in  Vermont; 
but  the  company  moved  to  their  present  location, 
where  they  were  organized  on  a  communal  basis. 
Certain  teachings  and  practices  on  the  marriage 
relation,  in  which  temporary  marriages  were  ar- 
ranged, and  on  the  care  of  children  brought  about 
strong  opposition  without,  and  the  pressure  of  pub- 
lic opinion  forced  an  abandonment  of  the  practices. 
In  1881  the  community  was  dissolved,  and  the  so- 
ciety was  converted  into  a  joint  stock  company  for 
manufacturing  purposes,  although  many  features  of 
a  cooperative  community  still  remain.     It  numbers 

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about  one  thousand  members,   most  of  whom   are 
employees. 

The  Shakers,  or  the  Millennial  Church. — The 
Shakers  were  the  first  to  organize  communistic  so- 
cieties in  this  country,  and  for  more  than  a  century 
these  communistic  settlements  have  been  main- 
tained among  them.  Their  first  community  was 
organized  at  Mount  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  in  1792.  This 
is  also  the  largest  and  is  recognized  as  the  "central 
executive"  of  all  the  Shaker  societies.  The  Shakers 
were  at  first  a  sect  of  the  English  Quakers.  They 
appeared  about  1747  as  a  result  of  a  revival  in 
which,  because  of  their  bodily  agitations  when 
under  religious  excitement,  they  came  to  be  called 
the  "Shaking  Quakers."  Ann  Lee  became  the 
leader  of  the  Shakers.  She  professed  to  have  re- 
ceived revelations  "of  the  way  of  redemption,"  pro- 
claimed herself  a  reincarnation  of  the  Messiah,  and 
came  to  be  accepted  as  such.  She  came  to  America 
in  1774  with  a  small  company  of  followers  and  es- 
tablished a  Church  at  Watervliet,  N.  Y.  Ann  Lee 
died  in  1784,  and  three  years  later  the  society  was 
placed  on  a  communal  basis.  According  to  the 
Shaker  doctrines,  the  religious  history  of  mankind 
is  divided  into  four  cycles.  The  first  included  the 
antediluvians ;  the  second,  the  Jews  up  to  the  com- 
ing of  Christ ;  the  third,  from  the  time  of  Christ  to 
the  appearing  of  Ann  Lee;  the  fourth  and  last  is 
the  present  dispensation,  and  the  Shaker  Church 
is  the  embodiment  of  Christ's  kingdom  on  earth. 
The  Shakers  reject  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  hold- 
ing that  God  is  dual,  male  and  female ;  that  he  ap- 
peared in  Christ  as  male  and  in  Ann  Lee  as  female. 

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They  also  deny  the  resurrection  of  the  body  and  the 
atonement.  Spirituahsm  is  a  prominent  doctrine 
among  them,  also  celibacy.  In  their  religious  serv- 
ices exhortations  by  both  men  and  women  march- 
ing and  dancing  to  music  are  prominent.  In  the 
ministry  and  in  all  the  affairs  of  the  Church  men 
and  women  are  on  an  equal  footing.  The  Shakers 
have  fifteen  societies,  found  in  seven  States,  and  in 
1890  had  1,728  members.  The  report  for  1906  shows 
them  to  have  only  516  members. 


CONGREGATIONALISTS. 

The  Congregational  body  may  be  justly  entitled 
the  mother  of  Churches.  From  it  have  proceeded 
the  Baptists,  Unitarians,  Universalists,  Adventists, 
Christian  Scientists,  and  other  bodies;  and  the 
parent  Church  still  remains  the  predominant  Prot- 
estant denomination  in  all  the  New  England  States 
except  Rhode  Island. 

The  Mayflower,  landing  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  in 
1620,  brought  the  first  Congregational  Church  to 
American  shores.  While  all  the  Pilgrims  were  not 
members  of  that  Church,  the  larger  part  of  them 
had  been  members  in  Holland;  and  upon  a  division 
of  the  Church  in  that  country,  a  part  remaining  and 
a  part  emigrating  to  America,  it  was  agreed  that 
each  part  thereafter  should  constitute  a  complete 
Church,  so  that  the  Mayflower  brought  over  a  com- 
pletely organized  Church  which  transplanted  itself 
in  America.  The  Church  in  Holland  had  been  made 
up  of  English  Congregationalists,  who  had  fled 
thither  to  escape  persecutions.     English  Congrega- 

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tionalism  dates  from  1580,  the  first  organization 
being  formed  in  that  year  at  Norwich  by  Robert 
Browne,  who  had  become  dissatisfied  with  the 
AngHcan  Church,  in  which  he  was  a  minister.  This 
body  was  scattered  by  persecutions.  Other 
Churches  of  this  system  met  a  similar  fate.  The 
Church  which  was  afterwards  represented  in  the 
Mayflower  colony  was  organized  at  Nottingham- 
shire in  1606.  Two  of  the  members  of  this  con- 
gregation were  John  Robinson,  who  became  its 
pastor,  and  William  Bradford,  afterwards  Governor 
of  the  Plymouth  Colony.  The  Nottinghamshire 
Church  was  broken  up  in  1608,  and  its  members 
fled  to  Holland  and  reorganized.  This  Church 
prospered,  remained  harmonious,  and  was  distinct- 
ly Congregational,  in  all  essential  particulars  Hke 
the  Congregational  Churches  of  the  present  time. 

The  history  of  Congregationalism  in  America  for 
two  centuries  following  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims 
is  closely  interwoven  with  the  history  of  New  Eng- 
land, where  from  the  first  it  was  the  dominant 
Church.  The  Puritan  colonists  of  1628-30,  mem- 
bers of  the  Anglican  Church  at  home,  found  Con- 
gregationalism so  well  adapted  to  their  new  condi- 
tions in  America  that  they  adopted  it,  and  until 
1700  there  were  hardly  any  other  Churches  in  Mas- 
sachusetts and  Connecticut.  Congregationalism  be- 
came practically  the  "State  Church"  of  these  colo- 
nies. Political  suffrage  was  for  a  time  limited  to 
Church  members,  and  until  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  Church  was  supported  by 
taxation.  This  condition  was  changed  in  Connecti- 
cut in  1816  and  in  Massachusetts  in  1833. 

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In  1801  a  plan  of  union  was  entered  into  with  the 
Presbyterians  concerning  the  formation  of  Churches 
in  new  settlements  in  the  West.  Under  it  Congre- 
gationalists  moving  from  New  England  to  other 
States  usually  entered  Presbyterian  Churches. 
Until  the  abrogation  of  this  agreement,  in  1852, 
Congregationalism  was  confined  almost  entirely  to 
New  England.  The  antislavery  position  of  the  de- 
nomination closed  the  Southern  States  to  it  before 
the  war.  Since  1852  the  Church  has  grown  rapidly 
in  many  of  the  Western  States.  Their  numbers  in 
the  South  are  still  small,  and  their  work  in  this  sec- 
tion is  confined  largely  to  the  negroes. 

In  doctrine  the  Congregationalists  agree  substan- 
tially with  all  evangelical  faiths.  In  their  early  his- 
tory they  held  the  Calvinistic  position,  and  one  of 
their  early  creedal  statements  was  the  Westminster 
Confession.  In  1883  a  commission  appointed  by  the 
national  council  formulated  a  Confession,  consist- 
ing of  twelve  articles.  It  is  more  evangelical  in  its 
statements  than  the  older  creed.  But  no  Congre- 
gational Church  is  obliged  to  accept  any  creed  or 
declaration  of  faith.  Each  Church  may  adopt  its 
own  creed,  and  many  Churches  do.  In  polity  the 
underlying  principles  have  been  stated  as  being 
(i)  the  independence  of  the  local  Church  and  (2) 
the  fellowship  of  the  Churches.  Stated  in  another 
way  by  another  authority,  the  characteristic  fea- 
tures of  Congregational  polity  are  freedom  and 
fellowship — a  freedom  which  leaves  each  Church  to 
manage  its  own  afiFairs,  a  fellowship  which  unites 
all  the  Churches  for  mutual  care  and  cooperate 
action.     In  accordance  with  the  principle  of  auton- 

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omy,  each  Church  may  draw  up  its  own  creed  and 
covenant,  formulate  its  order  of  worship,  elect  and 
install  its  pastor  and  other  officers.  It  is  common, 
however,  in  calling  or  dismissing  a  pastor,  in  form- 
ing new  Churches,  in  cases  of  discipline,  and  in 
questions  arising  between  Churches,  to  refer  these 
matters  to  a  council  composed  of  pastors  and  mem- 
bers of  neighboring  Churches.  Churches  are  asso- 
ciated in  local  and  State  associations  and  In  the 
national  council.  The  national  council  was  formed 
in  1871  and  meets  triennially.  It  has  no  legislative 
nor  judicial  power  over  the  Churches,  but  adminis- 
ters the  general  missionary  and  other  interests.  At 
its  meeting  in  1913  a  new  constitution  was  adopted, 
under  which  the  general  agencies  of  the  denomina- 
tion are  correlated  and  placed  under  the  advisory 
direction  of  a  commission. 

The  Congregationalists  have  always  been  in  the 
forefront  in  missionary  and  educational  work.  A 
missionary  society  was  formed  in  Connecticut  as 
early  as  1798  and  in  Massachusetts  a  year  later. 
The  National  Congregational  Home  Mission  So- 
ciety was  formed  in  1826  and  has  been  active  in  ex- 
tending Churches  in  new  settlements.  The  Ameri- 
can Missionary  Association,  organized  in  1846,  has 
done  its  work  chiefly  among  the  negroes  of  the 
South.  The  oldest  foreign  mission  society  in  this 
country  is  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners 
for  Foreign  Missions,  founded  in  1810.  It  has 
planted  Congregational  missions  in  India,  Turkey, 
Japan,  China,  Micronesia,  Austria,  Africa,  Spain, 
and  Mexico. 

Congregationalists  founded  Harvard  and  Yale 
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Universities,  and  these  institutions  were  long  en- 
gaged mainly  in  equipping  men  for  the  ministry. 
The  Unitarian  controversy  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  resulting  in  the  loss  of  thirty-nine  Churches 
to  the  Congregationalists  and  the  division  of  nearly 
one  hundred  others,  wrested  Harvard  from  the  con- 
trol of  the  denomination.  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  was  established  to  fill  its  place.  Other 
seminaries  are  the  Atlanta,  Bangor,  Chicago,  Hart- 
ford, Oberlin,  Pacific  (Berkeley,  Cal.),  and  Yale. 
Including  these  and  three  important  woman's  col- 
leges, the  denomination  has  founded  more  than 
forty  higher  institutions  of  learning. 

The  reports  for  1914  indicate  6,091  ministers, 
6,129  churches,  and  755,088  communicants.  The  re- 
port ending  December  31,  1912,  gives  the  number 
of  ministers  as  5,944,  "1,932  of  whom  are  without 
charges."  There  are  In  the  world  14,576  Congrega- 
tionalist  churches  and  1,402,202  members. 


DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST. 

The  movement  resulting  In  the  organization  of 
the  Church  of  the  Disciples  is  often  referred  to 
among  themselves  as  the  restoration  movement — 
not  a  reformation,  but  a  restoration  of  primitive 
Christianity.  Characteristic  expressions  of  their 
early  preaching  were:  ''The  ancient  order  of 
things ;"  ''Where  the  Bible  speaks  we  speak,  where 
the  Bible  is  silent  we  are  silent;"  "A  thus  saith  the 
Lord,  either  In  express  terms  or  by  approved  prece- 
dent, for  every  article  of  faith  and  Item  of  religious 

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practice;'*  and  "Nothing  ought  to  be  received  into 
the  faith  or  worship  of  the  Church  nor  be  made  a 
test  of  communion  among  Christians  that  is  not  as 
old  as  the  New  Testament.'* 

Many  of  these  declarations  are  attributed  to 
Thomas  Campbell,  an  Irish  Seceder  Presbyterian 
minister,  who  came  to  America  in  1807.  He  was 
immediately  assigned  work  by  his  Church  in  Wash- 
ington County,  Pa.  His  fraternity  with  other  de- 
nominations and  his  indifference  to  the  usages  of 
his  own,  as  instanced  by  his  inviting  members  of 
other  Presbyterian  bodies  to  the  communion, 
brought  upon  him  the  censure  of  his  brethren.  He 
v/ithdrew  from  the  Seceder  Church,  but  continued 
to  preach,  mainly  in  the  homes  of  the  people.  In 
1809  he  formed  the  "Christian  Association  of  Wash- 
ington," and  a  meetinghouse  was  built.  Campbell 
issued  a  "Declaration  and  Address,"  in  which  he 
explained  that  "this  society  by  no  means  considers 
itself  a  Church,  nor  do  the  members  consider  them- 
selves as  standing  in  that  relation,  but  merely  as 
voluntary  advocates  of  Church  reformation."  The 
Declaration  protested  against  the  "bitter  jarrings 
and  janglings  of  a  party  spirit,"  against  human 
opinions  and  creeds  in  the  Church,  and  announced 
the  purpose  of  returning  to  the  original  pattern  laid 
down  in  the  New  Testament. 

In  the  same  year  Thomas  Campbell  was  joined 
by  his  son,  Alexander,  from  Ireland,  who  adopted 
his  views.  The  father  made  some  efforts  to  unite 
the  "Association"  with  the  Presbyterians,  but  his 
overtures  were  rejected.  The  son  showed  himself 
of  a  different  spirit  and  purpose  and  henceforth  be- 

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came  the  champion  of  the  cause  advocated  in  the 
Declaration  and  Address.  "A  more  aggressive 
leader  v^as  needed,"  says  M.  M.  Davis  ("History 
of  the  Restoration  Movement"),  "and  the  father 
instinctively  stepped  to  the  rear  and  threw  his  man- 
tle over  the  shoulders  of  his  son."  The  father  laid 
the  foundation,  but  the  son  built  thereon. 

In  i8ii  the  first  Church  of  the  Christian  Asso- 
ciation vv^as  organized  at  Brush  Run,  Washington 
County,  Pa.,  with  twenty-nine  members.  Alexander 
Campbell  was  ordained  to  the  ministry  in  this 
Church  in  1812.  During  the  same  year  the  father 
and  son,  having  previously  surrendered  their  belief 
in  infant  baptism,  changed  their  views  on  the  mode 
of  baptism,  and  they  and  their  families  were  im- 
mersed by  a  Baptist  minister.  This  change  brought 
the  Baptists  into  sympathy  with  them,  and  upon 
invitation  of  the  Redstone  Baptist  Association,  and 
"being  still  anxious  to  avoid  every  appearance  of 
forming  a  new  denomination,"  the  Brush  Run 
Church  entered  this  association  in  1813.  Baptist 
churches  were  thrown  open  to  Alexander  Camp- 
bell, and  his  aggressive  presentation  of  his  views 
gained  him  a  wide  hearing.  He  held  debates  with 
Pedobaptists  in  which  his  Baptist  brethren  were 
his  enthusiastic  supporters.  "But  he  was  candid 
with  them  and  warned  them  against  a  possible  fu- 
ture." He  is  reported  as  having  addressed  to  a 
company  of  Baptist  preachers  the  statement  that 
"I  have  nearly  as  much  against  you  Baptists  as  I 
have  against  the  Presbyterians." 

In  1823  Mr.  Campbell  began  publishing  the 
Christian  Baptist,  in  which  he  set  forth  views  which 

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brought  upon  him  widespread  opposition  among  the 
Baptists.  He  was  tried  for  heresy  and  acquitted ; 
but  Baptist  Churches  began  to  disfellowship  his 
followers.  As  a  result  the  Brush  Run  Church  with- 
drew from  the  Redstone  Association  and  joined  the 
Mahoning  Association,  in  Eastern  Ohio.  The  Ma- 
honing Association  became  so  leavened  with  Camp- 
bell's teachings  that  it  disbanded,  and  the  Churches 
joined  the  new  movement  almost  in  a  body.  The 
rupture  with  the  Baptists  was  brought  about,  ac- 
cording to  Vedder,  a  Baptist  historian,  on  account 
of  the  practice  of  baptism  *'unto  the  remission  of 
sins,"  which  Campbell  was  advocating.  Davis,  the 
historian  of  the  Disciples,  agrees,  but  mentions 
other  differences,  as  those  involving  the  subjects  of 
conversion,  creeds,  the  administrator  in  baptism, 
the  use  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  reception  of  mem- 
bers, and  the  call  to  the  ministry.  The  same  au- 
thor says :  "No  exact  day  can  be  named  as  the  time 
of  this  sad  occurrence  [the  separation],  for  it  came 
about  gradually  and  consumed  several  years  in  its 
consummation  ;  but  we  may  date  it  1830.  After  this 
the  followers  of  Mr.  Campbell  were  called  Chris- 
tians, or  Disciples  of  Christ,  or  the  Christian 
Church,  the  legal  title  being  the  Church  of  Christ 
at  such  and  such  a  place."  The  names  commonly 
applied  by  outsiders  and  opposers  of  the  movement 
were  "Restorationers"  and  "Campbellites." 

Mr.  Campbell  was  early  assisted  in  spreading  his 
views  by  a  great  number  of  preachers,  many  of 
them  recruits  from  other  Churches,  mainly  from 
the  Baptist,  and  some  of  them  raised  up  by  the 
movement.     The  most  famous  of  these  was  Rev. 

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Walter  Scott,  an  Ohio  evangelist,  through  whose 
influence  the  practice  of  baptism  ''for  the  remission 
of  sins"  began  about  1827.  The  new  doctrines 
found  their  readiest  acceptance  in  Ohio,  Kentucky, 
Western  Virginia  (afterwards  West  Virginia),  In- 
diana, Missouri,  and  Tennessee.  And  in  this  terri- 
tory ''not  only  individuals  by  the  hundreds  and 
thousands  were  saved,  but  often  entire  congrega- 
tions swung  into  line.  .  .  .  Baptist  congrega- 
tions would  vote  out  the  Philadelphia  Confession 
and  vote  in  the  New  Testament  in  its  place.  And 
not  only  Baptists,  but  Presbyterians,  Universalists, 
Lutherans,  Methodists,  and  Episcopalians,  in  large 
numbers  were  reached.  The  Deerfield  Methodist 
Church  came  in  as  a  whole."  During  this  period 
the  forces  abroad  were  ably  assisted  by  Mr.  Camp- 
bell, not  only  in  preaching  and  debating  tours,  but 
by  his  editorial  work  on  the  Christian  Baptist. 
*'ThIs  paper  kept  up  a  raking  fire  all  along  the  line 
of  religious  discussions,  but  it  was  specially  severe 
at  certain  points.  One  of  these  was  the  clergy,  and 
he  handled  them  without  gloves.  He  characterized 
them  as  hireling  priests,  textuary  divines,  and  scrap 
doctors.  .  .  .  He  scored  them  for  their  clerical 
dress,  their  sanctimonious  speech,  their  long-faced 
piety,  their  devotion  to  party,  and  their  claim  to  a 
special  divine  call." 

The  largest  and  most  Important  accession  In  one 
body  to  the  Campbell  movement  was  the  union  with 
it  of  Rev.  Barton  W.  Stone  and  some  fifty  Churches 
of  his  following  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Ohio, 
the  union  occurring  in  183 1.  The  Stone  movement 
began  in  Kentucky  In   1804,  when,   as  a  result  of 

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great  revivals  in  that  section,  Stone,  wath  a  few 
other  ministers,  left  the  Presbyterian  Church  and 
formed  an  organization,  taking  the  name  of  Chris- 
tian. Mr.  Campbell's  biographer,  Dr.  Richardson, 
contrasts  the  two  parties  to  the  union  as  follows : 
"In  one  [the  Stone  party]  the  protracted  meeting 
was  prominent,  and  converts  were  multiplied;  in 
the  other  the  mists  and  clouds  of  theological  specu- 
lation were  dissipated,  and  the  Church  of  the  apos- 
tolic days  was  being  brought  back  into  view." 

For  the  next  thirty-five  years,  or  until  his  death, 
in  1866,  Alexander  Campbell  was  the  foremost 
figure  in  the  movement.  He  traveled  thousands  of 
miles,  preached,  lectured,  held  public  discussions, 
and  was  a  voluminous  writer,  his  publications  num- 
bering some  sixty  volumes.  He  founded  Bethany 
College,  West  Virginia,  in  1840,  "with  the  Bible 
as  a  textbook."  In  1847  he  traveled  and  preached 
in  Great  Britain,  where  he  found  Churches  called 
Churches  of  Christ,  of  independent  origin,  but  hold- 
ing much  in  common  with  his  views. 

One  of  Campbell's  books,  "The  Christian  Sys- 
tem," is  the  best-known  treatise  on  the  doctrinal 
position  of  the  Disciples ;  but  a  tract  entitled  "Our 
Position,"  by  Isaac  Errett,  is  held  to  be  the  best 
brief  statement  of  their  faith.  This  authority,  after 
naming  the  points  of  agreement  with  other  evan- 
gelical bodies,  sets  out  the  particulars  in  which  the 
Disciples  differ.  These  are:  I.  On  the  division  of 
the  Scriptures.  The  Disciples  hold  that,  while  both 
Testaments  are  inspired,  the  Old  Testament  was 
authority  for  the  Jews ;  the  New  Testament  is  now 
of  authority  for  Christians.  2.  The  Disciples  re- 
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pudiate  the  theological  and  philosophical  specula- 
tions of  Trinitarians  and  Unitarians  and  reject  all 
unauthorized  forms  of  speech  on  questions  which 
transcend  human  reason,  insisting  only  on  the 
words  given  in  the  Scriptures  concerning  the 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost.  3.  They  repudiate 
all  human  authoritative  creeds.  "We  do  not  object 
to  publishing  what  we  believe  and  practice,  but  we 
refuse  to  accept  any  such  statement  as  authoritative 
or  as  a  test  of  fellowship.'^  4.  "With  us  the  divinity 
and  Christhood  of  Jesus  is  the  creed  of  Christianity, 
and  we  demand  no  other  faith  in  order  to  baptism 
and  Church  membership.  In  matters  of  opinion, 
touching  which  the  Bible  is  either  silent  or  obscure, 
we  allow  the  largest  liberty."  5.  "While  recogniz- 
ing the  agency  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  conversion,  w^e 
repudiate  all  theories  of  spiritual  operations  and  all 
theories  which  rule  out  the  Word  of  God  as  the  in- 
strument of  regeneration  and  conversion  or  which 
regard  regeneration  as  a  miracle,  leading  men  to 
seek  for  evidence  of  acceptance  with  God  in  super- 
natural tokens  rather  than  In  the  definite  and  un- 
changeable testimonies  and  promises  of  the  gospel." 
6.  "We  insist  on  the  meaning  of  baptism,  according 
to  the  divine  testimonies,  that  It  is  for  the  remission 
of  sins.  Concerning  the  Lord's  Supper,  we  invest 
it  not  with  the  awfulness  of  a  sacrament,  but  regard 
it  as  a  memorial  feast  and  keep  it  on  every  Lord's 
day,  recognizing  neither  open  nor  close  com- 
munion." 7.  "The  Church  of  Christ — not  sects — 
Is  a  divine  Institution.  We  do  not  recognize  sects, 
with  sectarian  names  and  symbols,  as  branches  of 
the  Church  of  Christ,  but  as  unscriptural  and  anti- 

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scriptural  and  therefore  to  be  abandoned  for  the 
one  Church  of  God  which  the  New  Testament  re- 
veals. That  God  has  a  people  among  these  sects 
we  believe  and  call  on  them  to  come  out  from  all 
party  organizations.  We  urge  the  Word  of  God 
against  human  creeds,  faith  in  Christ  against  faith 
in  systems  of  theology,  obedience  to  Christ  rather 
than  to  Church  authority,  the  Church  of  Christ  in 
place  of  sects,  the  promises  of  the  gospel  instead  of 
dreams,  visions,  and  marvelous  experiences  as  evi- 
dences of  pardon."  On  the  subject  of  the  design  of 
baptism  this  author  explains  that  "regeneration 
must  be  so  far  accomplished  before  baptism  that  the 
subject  is  changed  in  heart,  and  in  faith  and  peni- 
tence must  have  yielded  up  his  heart  to  Christ, 
otherwise  baptism  is  nothing  but  an  empty  form. 
But  forgiveness  is  something  distinct  from  regen- 
eration ;  forgiveness  is  an  act  of  the  sovereign,  not 
a  change  of  the  sinner's  heart ;  it  needs  to  be  offered 
in  a  sensible  and  tangible  form,  such  that  the  sin- 
ner can  seize  it  and  appropriate  it.  .  .  .  In  bap- 
tism, therefore,  the  sinner  appropriates  what  the 
mercy  of  God  has  provided  and  offered  in  the  gos- 
pel." 

In  point  of  Church  government,  the  Disciples 
agree  with  the  Congregationalists  and  Baptists, 
with  the  exception  that  the  distinction  between 
clergy  and  laity  is  not  known.  They  have  elders, 
or  bishops,  deacons,  and  evangelists;  but  in  the 
absence  of  a  minister  the  members  meet  in  worship, 
observe  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  any  member  may 
administer  baptism.  No  ecclesiastical  courts  are 
recognized,  but  it  is  now  becoming  somewhat  gen- 

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eral  to  refer  cases  of  discipline  to  a  committee  for 
final  decision.  Churches  are  organized  into  district, 
State,  and  national  conventions ;  not  for  discussion 
or  decisions  in  matters  of  doctrine  or  discipline,  but 
only  for  cooperation  in  the  benevolent  work  of  the 
denomination. 

The  history  of  the  Disciples  has  not  been  without 
controversies  within  its  own  ranks.  The  slavery 
question  seriously  threatened  the  integrity  of  the 
body,  but  it  came  through  the  war  without  a  di- 
vision. The  communion  question,  as  to  whether 
unimmersed  persons  should  be  invited  to  the  Lord's 
table,  was  long  a  subject  of  controversy.  The  more 
general  conclusion  reached,  though  it  was  not  unani- 
mous, was  that  indicated  above,  that  "we  neither 
invite  nor  exclude."  Another  subject  of  contro- 
versy, and  which  proved  more  serious  than  any 
other  in  its  consequences,  was  the  question  of  in- 
strumental music  in  the  churches.  The  differences 
on  this  subject  reached  an  acute  stage  about  1870. 
Those  who  opposed  the  organ  in  worship  generally 
also  opposed  missionary  societies.  Feeling  ran 
high,  and  hundreds  of  congregations  became  di- 
vided. The  division  has  never  been  healed,  but 
rather  have  the  parties  in  this  controversy  grown 
wider  apart.  "The  rupture  at  this  point,"  says 
Davis,  "is  the  most  serious  matter  yet  encountered 
in  the  plea  for  Christian  union.  It  shows  our  in- 
ability to  fully  illustrate  this  glorious  plea."  The 
two  parties  resulting  from  this  division  are  now 
generally  known  by  the  name  of  the  Church  of 
Christ,  or  the  Conservatives,  who  do  not  use  instru- 
mental music  in  their  worship,  and  the  Disciples  of 

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Christ,  or  the  Progressives,  who  are  more  in  line 
with  other  evangehcal  Churches  in  their  worship 
and  in  their  wonderful  growth  and  activities. 

The  educational  work  of  the  Disciples  began  with 
the  founding  of  Bethany  College,  West  Virginia,  in 
1840.  Alexander  Campbell  was  its  founder  and  first 
president.  The  institution  has  an  endowment  of 
$360,000  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  students.  Tran- 
sylvania University,  Lexington,  Ky.,  and  Drake 
University,  Des  Moines,  la.,  are  two  leading  insti- 
tutions under  the  control  of  the  Disciples,  with 
property  valued  at  $700,000  each  and  endowments 
of  about  $500,000  each.  Hiram  College,  Hiram, 
Ohio,  founded  in  1849,  had  for  Its  second  president 
James  A.  Garfield,  afterwards  President  of  the 
United  States.  Texas  Christian  University,  Fort 
Worth,  Tex.,  Phillips  University,  Enid,  Okla.,  Cot- 
ner  University,  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  and  Virginia  Chris- 
tian College,  Lynchburg,  are  other  flourishing  col- 
leges. The  denomination,  all  told,  owns  or  controls 
about  thirty-seven  schools  and  colleges. 

The  American  Christian  Missionary  Society,  a 
home  mission  agency,  was  organized  in  1849.  ^^ 
has  been  instrumental  in  establishing  about  four 
thousand  Churches.  The  headquarters  are  at  Cin- 
cinnati. The  Christian  Women's  Board  of  Mis- 
sions was  organized  in  1874.  Its  activities  extend 
to  both  home  and  foreign  fields.  The  Foreign 
Christian  Missionary  Society  dates  from  1875.  It 
sustains  work  In  Japan,  China,  the  Philippines,  In- 
dia, Africa,  Cuba,  and  In  some  European  countries. 
An  undertaking  of  the  greatest  significance  Is  the 
"Men  and  Millions  Movement,"  launched  at  a  meet- 

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ing  in  St.  Louis  in  1913.  It  contemplates  the  rais- 
ing of  $6,000,000,  $1,000,000  of  which  was  pledged 
by  a  wealthy  layman,  for  distribution  among  the 
various  benevolent  boards  of  the  Church.  The 
campaign  also  looks  to  the  enlistment  of  one  thou- 
sand new  recruits  for  the  mission  fields  at  home  and 
abroad. 

Statistics:  Church  of  Christ  reports  for  1906  (no 
later  figures  published)  :  Ministers,  2,100;  churches, 
2,649;  members,  156,658. 

Disciples  of  Christ,  membership  by  States,  from 
the  Yearbook,  1915,  issued  by  the  American  Chris- 
tian Missionary  Society  :* 


Alabama    

Arizona     

Arkansas    

California,    North... 

California,    South 

Colorado    

District  of  Columbia, 
Maryland,  and 
Delaware    

Florida    

Georgia   

Idaho,  North  

Idaho,  South  

Illinois   

Indiana    

Iowa    

Kansas     

Kentucky    

Louisiana    


6,000 
1,269 
28,000 
14,000 
16,827 
10,508 


7,678 

3,242 

16,500 

1,726 

2,200 

115.000 

140,000 

65,000 

66,939 

168,675 

3,000 


Michigan    12,240 

Minnesota    4,i75 

Mississippi    9,200 

Missouri    150,000 

Montana    3,200 

Nebraska    23,042 

New  England   3,019 

New      Mexico      and 

West   Texas    2,571 

New  York  10,400 

North  Carolina 16,277 

North   Dakota 1,000 

Ohio     100,000 

Oklahoma    35,ooo 

Oregon    17,000 

Pennsylvania,    East..  9,292 

Pennsylvania,   West..  24,590 

South  Carolina 2,096 

South  Dakota  2,000 


*The  figures  from  many  States  are  estimates—^,  g.,  Ala- 
bama, 3,925  members  reported;  19  Churches  out  of  55  not  re- 
porting; total  estimated  membership,  6,000. 

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Tennessee     40,000      Wisconsin    2,600 

Texas    164,000      Wyoming    518 

Uta^    ^°^          Total,  U.  S 1,363,163 

"^^'Sini^    30,404      Canada    7,349 

Washington,    East . . .  7,700      F^.^ign  fields  45,945 

Washington,   West...  11,000                                           

West  Virginia    15,075          Total,  world   1,416,457 

The  Disciples  report  but  an  insignificant  increase 
during  the  past  year,  "due  to  imperfect  reports  and 
separation  from  conservative  brethren."  The  num- 
ber of  Churches  is  8,524,  as  compared  with  9,099  the 
previous  year.  This  decrease  is  due  in  part  to  the 
elimination  of  Churches  which  were  "mere  names" 
in  the  previous  year's  reports  and  in  part  to  the 
fact  that  many  of  the  more  conservative  Churches 
in  the  Southern  States  insist  that  their  congrega- 
tions shall  not  be  included  in  these  reports.  About 
one-third  of  the  Churches,  or  2,748,  are  listed  as 
having  no  regular  pastor  in  charge.  Total  white 
preachers,  5,634;  colored,  525. 

United  Christian  Conference  of  the  Disciples  of 
Christ. — The  following  is  taken  from  the  World 
Almanac  for  1915 :  "This  is  a  new  department  of  the 
denomination  commonly  known  as  the  Christian 
Church,  or  Disciples  of  Christ,  otherwise  called 
*Campbellites.'  This  ^Church  of  Christ'  is  in  the 
United  States  divided  into  about  three  parties :  the 
'Antis,'  or  Reactionary  party,  about  150,000  in  nu- 
merical strength ;  the  'Conservatives,'  or  Conven- 
tional sort,  800,000  strong;  and  the  Trogressives,' 
or  Conference  kind,  the  latter,  about  50,000  in  num- 
ber, having  organized  a  national  office  at  Portland, 
Oregon,  when  in  191 1  the  American  Convention  met 

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at  that  place  in  national  convention  and  a  bishop 
was  elected  with  headquarters  in  Portland,  Oregon. 
Soon  after  this  the  new  department  was  incor- 
porated in  the  name  of  the  'United  Christian  Con- 
ference of  the  Disciples  of  Christ,'  and  the  Rt.  Rev. 
St.  D.  Martin  was  elected  as  their  bishop.  The 
Christian  Century,  a  weekly  organ  published  at 
Chicago,  is  recognized  as  their  journalistic  leader. 
They  also  have  Eastern  headquarters  at  Newark, 
N.  J.,  and  a  bishop  at  that  point,  the  Rt.  Rev.  J.  D. 
Meade,  who  supervises  the  affairs  of  the  Eastern 
States." 


EVANGELICAL  CHURCHES. 

While  not  usually  classified  among  Methodist 
bodies,  the  Evangelical  Association  is  Methodistic 
in  doctrine,  polity,  and  in  spirit,  and  it  is  repre- 
sented in  the  Methodist  Ecumenical  Conferences. 
Its  founder,  Jacob  Albright,  was  at  one  time  a  min- 
ister in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

Albright  was  a  German,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1759-  The  low  religious  condition  of  his  own  peo- 
ple around  him  led  him  to  undertake  a  religious 
revival  among  them  about  1790.  His  efforts  met 
with  success,  and,  like  the  founder  of  Methodism, 
he  was  soon  confronted  with  the  problem  of  taking 
care  of  his  converts.  The  leaders  of  his  own  de- 
nomination "did  not  wish  to  do  work  at  that  time 
among  the  Germans  of  this  country,"  and  Albright 
organized  his  converts  Into  separate  societies,  the 
first  organization  being  formed  about  1800.  The 
first  conference  was  held  in  1807,  at  which  Albright 

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was  elected  bishop.  Two  years  later  a  discipline, 
similar  to  that  used  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  was  published.  Albright's  followers  were 
at  first  called  the  ''Albright  people,"  or  the  "Al- 
brights," but  later  the  name  Evangelical  Associa- 
tion of  North  America  was  taken.  While  this 
movement  was  begun  among  the  German  people, 
it  has  now  its  largest  membership  among  English- 
speaking  people. 

Differences  of  long  standing  culminated  in  1890 
and  1891  in  the  trial  and  suspension  of  the  three 
bishops  of  the  Association.  In  October,  1891,  two 
bodies,  each  claiming  to  be  the  legal  general  con- 
ference, met,  the  one  in  Philadelphia,  the  other  in 
Indianapolis.  The  courts  were  resorted  to,  and 
their  decisions  were  generally  in  favor  of  the  In- 
dianapolis conference.  The  opposite  wing  organ- 
ized the  United  Evangelical  Church  at  Napierville, 
III,  in  1894. 

Both  branches  have  extensive  publishing,  educa- 
tional, and  missionary  interests,  and  the  two  bodies 
report  an  increase  of  more  than  50,000  members 
since  1906.  Statistics  for  1914:  Evangelical  Asso- 
ciation— ministers,  1,031 ;  churches,  1,663  >  mem- 
bers, 115,243.  United  Evangelical  Church — min- 
isters, 538 ;  churches,  935 ;  members,  75,050.  The 
denomination  is  strongest  in  the  States  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio,  and  Illinois. 


FRIENDS. 

The  founder  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  or  Quak- 
ers,  was   George   Fox,   who,   becoming   dissatisfied 

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with  the  religious  conditions  in  England,  began 
preaching  about  1647.  He  traveled  through  Eng- 
land on  foot  and  soon  drew  around  him  a  considera- 
ble following.  One  of  Fox's  early  converts  was 
Margaret  Fell,  a  woman  of  prominence,  who  be- 
came one  of  his  strongest  supporters.  From  her 
house  a  band  of  sixty  Quaker  missionaries  went 
forth  to  preach  the  doctrines  of  the  new  faith.  The 
labors  of  Fox  and  this  band  of  preachers  were  at- 
tended by  great  spiritual  power,  and  thousands  of 
adherents  were  gathered.  On  account  of  some  doc- 
trines preached,  as  advising  against  oaths,  the  pay- 
ment of  taxes  for  the  support  of  the  State  Church, 
and  against  obedience  to  all  laws  deemed  by  them 
iniquitous,  the  Friends  came  into  conflict  with  the 
government,  and  thousands  of  them  were  impris- 
oned and  subjected  to  persecution. 

After  many  rebufifs  the  movement  took  hold  in 
the  American  colonies  in  New  England  as  early  as 
1660.  George  Fox  himself  made  a  preaching  tour 
of  the  colonies  in  1673-81.  But  the  most  important 
enterprise  in  the  history  of  the  Society  in  this  coun- 
try was  the  settlement  of  Pennsylvania  by  William 
Penn  and  a  company  of  his  brethren,  beginning  in 
1682.  This  colony  was  controlled  by  the  Friends 
for  more  than  seventy  years. 

Soon  after  the  cessation  of  persecution  (about 
1680)  the  Friends  lost  much  of  their  aggressiveness 
and  began  to  turn  their  attention  to  internal  or- 
ganization and  discipline.  Much  attention  was  also 
given  to  works  of  philanthropy  and  against  slavery. 
From  this  time  there  was  a  steady  decline  in  mem- 
bership.   In  1827  a  schism  occurred  in  the  societies 

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in  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Ohio,  and  Indiana,  due 
to  the  preaching  of  EHas  Hicks,  a  prominent  Friend, 
who  taught  doctrines  closely  resembling  Unitarian 
views.  The  followers  of  Hicks  came  to  be  known 
as  the  Hicksite  branch.  In  1840  another  separation 
from  the  main  body  occurred,  although  not  so 
serious  nor  distinct  as  before,  the  point  of  contro- 
versy being  as  to  the  relative  authority  of  the 
Scriptures  and  the  Spirit.  Those  who  separated 
are  known  as  the  Wilburites,  from  John  Wilbur. 
Since  1871  the  Friends  have  been  active  supporters 
of  foreign  mission  work. 

The  doctrine  emphasized  in  the  preaching  of 
George  Fox  and  the  distinctive  doctrine  held  by  the 
Friends  from  that  day  is  that  relating  to  the  *'inner 
illumination  and  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit"  in 
the  individual  believer.  This  doctrine  lies  at  the 
root  of  all  their  special  doctrines  and  explains  the 
peculiar  nature  of  their  meetings.  The  Friends 
meet  and  usually  remain  in  silence,  in  meditation, 
worship,  or  self-examination,  until  some  one  is 
moved  by  the  Spirit  to  speak.  In  their  view  all  be- 
lievers are  "priests  unto  God,"  and  any  person,  old 
or  young,  male  or  female,  who  feels  so  called  has 
the  authority  to  teach  or  to  preach.  The  ordinances 
of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  are  not  observed, 
their  belief  being  that  the  baptism  of  the  Spirit  and 
communion  with  the  Father  and  the  Son  meet  all 
Scriptural  necessities. 

The  societies  are  associated  in  monthly,  quarter- 
ly, and  annual  meetings.  These  meetings  appoint 
overseers  for  the  membership  and  elders  for  over- 
sight of  the  ministry.     It  has  become  noticeable  of 

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late  that  the  distinctive  Quaker  garb  is  being  laid 
aside  and  that  the  characteristic  "thee"  and  *'thou" 
of  their  speech  is  falling  into  disuse.  The  Society 
maintains  several  educational  institutions,  among 
them  being  the  William  Penn  Charter  School, 
Philadelphia,  founded  by  William  Penn,  and  Bryn 
Mawr  Woman's  College,  at  Byrn  Mawr,  Pa. 

There  are  four  divisions  of  the  Friends  in  this 
country,  as  follows :  The  Orthodox,  the  most  numer- 
ous branch,  strongest  in  Ohio  and  Indiana;  the 
Hicksite,  strongest  in  Pennsylvania;  the  Wilburite, 
found  mainly  in  Indiana  and  Iowa;  and  the  Primi- 
tive, with  an  insignificant  scattered  membership. 
The  total  figures  for  all  bodies  are:  Ministers, 
1,476;  churches,  1,167;  members,  124,216. 


FAITH  ASSOCIATIONS. 

In  the  United  States  census  reports  of  religious 
bodies  for  1906  there  are  fourteen  sects  or  associa- 
tions classified  as  Evangelistic  Associations.  In 
the  Bulletin  of  the  Federal  Council  of  Churches 
(1914)  these  are  reduced  to  nine,  some  of  the  earlier 
ones  having  become  disorganized  or  united  with 
others  and  are  classified  under  the  head  of  Faith 
Associations.  In  origin  many  of  them  are  Meth- 
odistic,  and  nearly  all  emphasize  the  doctrine  of 
holiness  or  sanctification  as  a  second  work  of  grace. 
They  are  as  follows: 

I.  Apostolic  Faith  Movement.  Originated  in  a 
revival  at  Topeka,  Kans.,  1900.  Headquarters  at 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  with  centers  also  at  Houston, 

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Tex.,   and   Spokane,   Wash.     Membership  in   1906, 

538. 

2.  Penial  Missions.    Membership,  703. 

3.  Metropolitan  Church  Associations.  Developed 
from  the  Metropolitan  Methodist  Church,  Chicago, 
1894.  Headquarters  are  at  Waukesha,  Wis.  This 
branch  is  known  as  the  "Burning  Bush."  Member- 
ship, 466. 

4.  Hepzibah  Faith  Association.  Formed  in  1892 
at  Glenwood,  la.    Alembership,  293. 

5.  Missionary  Church  Association.  Organized  in 
Indiana  in  1898.    Membership,  1,256. 

6.  Heavenly  Recruit  Church.  Organized  in  In- 
diana in  1885.    Membership,  938. 

7.  Apostolic  Christian  Church.  An  organization 
formed  about  1850  among  the  German  Swiss  immi- 
grants, emphasizing  the  doctrine  of  entire  sanctifica- 
tion.    Membership,  4,558. 

8.  Christian  Congregation.  Formed  in  1899  ^^ 
Kokomo,  Ind.    Membership,  395. 

9.  Voluntary  Missionary  Society  (colored).  Or- 
ganized in  Alabama  in  1900  in  protest  against  the 
Methodist  system  of  financial  assessments.  Mem- 
bership, 425. 

In  addition  to  those  listed  above,  there  are  other 
similar  organizations. 

The  Free  Christian  Zion  Church  of  Christ  (Col- 
ored) was  organized  in  Arkansas  in  1905  by  colored 
Methodist  ministers  on  account  of  dissatisfaction 
with  financial  assessments.     Membership,  1,835. 

The  Lumber  River  Mission,  an  organization  com- 
posed of  Holiness  Methodist  Churches  in  North 
Carolina.     Membership,  265. 

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The  International  Apostolic  Holiness  Union, 
founded  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1897  by  Martin  W. 
Knapp.    Reported  in  1906,  2,774  members. 

There  are  a  large  number  of  local  organizations, 
known  by  a  great  variety  of  names,  which  are  active 
in  evangelistic  and  charitable  work  and  which  are 
popularly  known  as  Holiness  bodies,  but  there  are 
no  published  estimates  of  their  membership. 


FRIENDS  OF  THE  TEMPLE. 

A  SMALL  body,  originating  in  Germany,  which  has 
for  its  purpose  the  setting  up  of  the  kingdom  of 
Christ  on  earth,  with  Jerusalem  for  its  capital.  It 
is  expected  to  restore  the  temple  and  the  ancient 
theocracy  of  Israel.  A  colony  has  been  planted  in 
Palestine,  but  the  adherents  of  the  movement,  never 
very  numerous,  are  diminishing.  In  1906  there 
were  three  hundred  and  seventy-six  members  in  the 
United  States. 


GERMAN  EVANGELICAL  PROTESTANTS. 

This  is  the  name  given  collectively  to  a  number 
of  independent  German  Churches,  found  chiefly  in 
Ohio  and  Pennsylvania.  They  have  ministerial  as- 
sociations, in  which  matters  of  mutual  interest  are 
discussed,  but  otherwise  there  are  no  interchurch 
organizations.  Their  theology  is  very  liberal,  the 
individual  believer  being  left  to  his  own  interpre- 
tation of  Scripture.  In  1906  these  Churches  re- 
ported 59  ministers,  66  churches,  and  34,704  mem- 
bers. 

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GERMAN  EVANGELICAL  SYNOD. 

This  represents  in  the  United  States  the  State 
Church  of  Prussia,  which  is  composed  of  a  union 
of  Lutheran  and  Reformed  elements.  According  to 
an  official  statement,  "the  object  and  purpose  of  the 
German  Evangelical  Synod  in  general  is  the  ad- 
vancement and  extension  of  the  kingdom  of  God, 
but  especially  the  establishment  and  expansion  of 
the  Evangelical  Church  among  the  German  popula- 
tion of  the  United  States." 

The  Synod  was  organized  near  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in 
1840.  Other  German  synods  have  since  united  with 
it.  The  Synod  is  divided  into  eighteen  districts, 
which  hold  district  annual  conferences.  There  is 
a  general  conference,  which  convenes  every  four 
years.  The  body  carries  on  through  various  boards 
extensive  educational,  missionary,  and  benevolent 
work.  Both  parochial  and  Sunday  schools  are 
maintained.  The  work  of  the  denomination  is  done 
almost  exclusively  among  the  German  population, 
but  in  recent  years  a  few  English-speaking 
Churches  have  been  organized.  This  body  is  most 
numerous  in  the  States  of  Missouri,  Illinois,  and 
Ohio.  Statistics  for  1914:  Ministers,  1,058; 
churches,  1,365;  members,  290,803. 


GREEK  CATHOLIC,  OR  EASTERN  ORTHO- 
DOX, CHURCH. 

This  is  the  general  name  for  one  of  the  three 
grand  divisions  of  Christianity — Greek,  Roman 
Catholic,  and   Protestant — and   refers  to  all   those 

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Churches  which  adhere  to  the  Greek  rite  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  Latin,  or  Roman.  The  full  official 
title  is  the  ''Holy  Orthodox  Catholic  Apostolic 
Eastern  (or  Oriental)  Church."  The  title  desig- 
nates its  origin  and  geographical  territory  and  its 
"orthodoxy"  or  adherence  to  the  system  of  doctrine 
and  discipline  formulated  by  the  seven  early  ecu- 
menical councils. 

The  division  of  the  ancient  Church  into  the  East- 
ern, or  Greek,  wing  and  Western,  or  Roman,  oc- 
curred in  the  ninth  century.  They  were  never  or- 
ganically united,  but  grew  up  together  and  co- 
operated in  the  early  extension  of  Christianity  and 
in  the  early  ecumenical  councils.  But  from  the  be- 
ginning they  differed  in  tradition,  nationality,  and 
language.  The  growth  of  the  papacy  in  the  West 
laid  the  foundation  for  the  final  rupture,  the  conflict 
between  the  pope  of  Rome  and  the  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  finally  resulting  in  each  excom- 
municating the  other.  The  chief  doctrinal  differ- 
ence between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches 
is  the  "Filioque"  addition  to  the  Nicene  Creed  made 
by  the  Roman  Church,  making  that  creed  declare 
that  the  Holy  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Father  "and 
the  Son,"  the  Greeks  holding  that  the  procession 
is  from  the  Father  only,  as  originally  stated.  The 
Greek  Church  differs  from  the  Roman  in  other  im- 
portant particulars,  as  follows :  Rejection  of  the 
papacy;  celibacy  Is  not  practiced,  priests  being  al- 
lowed to  marry  once ;  baptism  among  the  Easterns 
is  by  trine  immersion,  sprinkling,  as  practiced  by 
the  Romans,  being  held  to  be  "an  tmchrlstian  in- 
novation" ;  the  attitude  In  prayer  is  standing,  ex- 

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cept  at  Pentecost,  when  the  worshipers  kneel;  in- 
fants are  confirmed  and  admitted  to  the  communion 
at  baptism.  The  Greeks  have  an  elaborate  ritual, 
like  the  Romans.  They  accept  the  first  seven  ecu- 
menical councils,  but  reject  all  the  Western  coun- 
cils. They  are  not  strongly  committed  against 
Protestantism,  as  the  reform  movement  never  came 
into  active  conflict  with  the  Eastern  Church.  The 
effort  made  by  a  patriarch  of  Constantinople  to  en- 
graft Calvinism  upon  the  Greek  theology  failed 
completely,  and  the  innovator  was  strangled  to 
death  and  his  body  thrown  into  the  Bosporus 
(1638).  Secession  from  the  Orthodox  Church  is 
rigidly  prohibited.  "No  one  can  be  converted  in 
Russia  from  one  religion  or  sect  to  another  except 
to  the  national  Orthodox  Church,  and  all  the  chil- 
dren of  mixed  marriages  where  one  parent  belongs 
to  it  must  be  baptized  and  educated  in  it." 

The  Eastern  Church  is  divided  into  fifteen 
branches,  each  independent  of  the  other.  The  com- 
munion embraces  the  Greek,  Russian,  and  Slavonic 
nationalities  and  is  found  chiefly  in  Turkey,  Greece, 
Servia,  Roumania,  Russia,  some  parts  of  Austria,  in 
Western  Asia,  and,  chiefly  by  immigration,  in  the 
United  States.  The  largest  branch  is  the  Church 
in  Russia,  ruled  by  the  Russian  Holy  Synod,  al- 
though the  Czar  is  the  recognized  head  of  the 
Church.  The  estimated  membership  of  all  the 
various  branches  throughout  the  world  is  150,000,- 
000. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  seven  branches  of 
the  Eastern  Orthodox  Church  ;  but,  as  in  the  Old 
World,  all  are  one  in  doctrine,  discipline,  and  wor- 
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ship,  and  all  are  subject  to  ancient  canon  law  as  to 
government.  The  Russian  Church  has  precedence 
over  other  branches,  for  the  reason  that  she  was 
first  to  be  planted  in  this  country.  All  Slavonic 
branches,  excepting  the  Bulgarian  and  the  Syrian 
Church,  are  under  her  rule.  The  Greek  branch  is 
under  the  Synod  of  Athens.  The  following  are  the 
latest  obtainable  figures  for  the  various  branches  in 
the  United  States : 

Armenian  Apostolic   55,000 

Russian   Orthodox    65,000 

Greek  Orthodox    i75,ooo 

Syrian  Orthodox   43,ooo 

Servian  Orthodox  60,000 

Roumanian  Orthodox    20,000 

Bulgarian   Orthodox    20,000 

Total    438,500 


JEWISH  CONGREGATIONS. 

The  Jewish  population  of  the  world  is  given  in 
round  numbers  at  11,300,000.  Of  this  number, 
nearly  one-half,  or  5,400,000,  are  in  Russia  and 
2,100,000  in  Austria-Hungary.  There  are  2,150,000 
Jews  in  the  United  States  and  100,000  in  Canada. 

Jews  at  an  early  date,  as  exiles  from  Spain  and 
Portugal,  settled  in  the  American  colonies.  They 
are  found  in  New  Amsterdam  as  early  as  1652. 
They  were  joined  by  others  from  Brazil ;  but  the 
Jewish  settlers  were  not  welcomed,  and  they  moved 
to  Rhode  Island,  where  the  first  synagogue  was  or- 
ganized  about   1655.     The   old   synagogue   is   still 

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standing  at  Newport.  Pennsylvania,  Georgia,  and 
the  Carolinas  were  the  next  places  of  settlement. 
The  Jews  readily  attached  themselves  to  their  new 
asylum  and  showed  themselves  patriots  w^hen  the 
break  came  with  England.  A  member  of  the  New- 
port synagogue  gave  $10,000  to  finish  the  Bunker 
Hill  monument. 

Religiously,  the  Jews  may  be  said,  in  a  general 
way,  to  hold  the  ancient  faith  of  their  fathers,  but 
they  are  not  united  in  their  views  and  customs. 
Modern  Judaism  has  three  divisions,  not  strictly 
applied  nor  everywhere  applied  alike.  The  Ortho- 
dox Jews  hold  strictly  to  the  Old  Testament  as  the 
Word  of  God,  and  with  equal  veneration  and  strict- 
ness they  observe  the  traditional  body  of  laws, 
statutes,  and  customs  expounded  by  the  rabbis  of 
the  Talmuds  and  handed  down  through  the  genera- 
tions by  tradition.  The  codification  of  these  laws 
and  customs,  made  by  Rabbi  Joseph  Caro  in  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  is  authoritative  in 
all  the  minutest  details  of  Jewish  life. 

The  Conservative  congregations,  in  common  with 
the  Orthodox,  accept  both  the  written  and  the  oral 
law,  but  are  less  strict  in  their  observance. 

The  Reformed  Jews  hold  a  different  attituae  to- 
ward both  the  acceptance  and  the  observance  of  the 
written  and  oral  law.  Liberal  ideas  as  to  the  in- 
spiration of  the  Bible  and  the  development  of  reve- 
lation and  tradition  are  the  rule  among  them,  and 
great  concessions  are  made  to  the  spirit  of  the  times 
and  the  conditions  of  modern  life.  In  Germany  and 
the  United  States  Sunday  services  are  being  intro- 

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duced  in  addition  to  the  regular  Sabbath  observ- 
ances, and  in  a  few  places,  notably  Chicago,  the 
Sabbath  service  has  been  entirely  discarded. 

The  rites  and  ceremonies  which  are  generally 
observed  vary.  The  Sabbath  is  still  strictly  ob- 
served by  the  Orthodox.  They  also  rigidly  observe 
the  two  festivals  of  New  Year  and  the  Day  of 
Atonement  in  Septembei  and  October  and  the  Pass- 
over festival  in  March  or  April.  The  Pentecost 
festival,  at  the  end  of  May  or  the  beginning  of  June, 
is  observed  by  the  Reformed  Jews,  among  whom  it 
is  a  day  of  confirmation.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles 
is  still  generally  observed.  The  dietary  laws  of 
Moses  are  universally  observed  by  the  Orthodox 
Jews. 

The  Jews  have  no  religious  head.  Each  congre- 
gation is  autonomous  and  a  law  unto  itself.  But 
congregations  cooperate  in  many  ways.  There  is  a 
Union  of  American  Hebrew  Congregations,  the 
Young  Men's  Hebrew  Association,  the  National 
Council  of  Jewish  Women,  and  other  general  socie- 
ties. According  to  the  latest  official  reports,  there 
are  1,769  Jewish  congregations  in  the  United  States 
and  1,084  rabbis.  Only  the  heads  of  Jewish  fam- 
ilies are  usually  members  of  synagogues.  The  num- 
ber of  heads  of  families  reported  is  143,000. 
Counting  on  the  same  basis  as  other  Churches,  it  is 
estimated  that  there  are  from  1,750,000  to  2,000,000 
members  of  the  faith  in  this  country.  In  Jewish 
population  the  State  of  New  York  contains  upward 
of  1,000,000;  Pennsylvania  has  150,000  and  Illinois 
110,000,  Massachusetts  90,000  and  Ohio  85,000. 

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LATTER-DAY  SAINTS,  OR  MORMONS. 

The  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-Day  Saints, 
better  known  as  the  Mormon  Church,  was  organized 
April  6,  1830,  at  Fayette,  Seneca  County,  N.  Y.,  with 
six  members.  Joseph  Smith,  its  founder,  was  a 
native  of  Vermont,  whence  he  moved  in  boyhood 
with  his  parents  to  Western  New  York.  The  elder 
Smith  was  known  as  a  roving  money  digger  and 
water  witch,  and  the  family  is  said  to  have  lived  a 
hand-to-mouth  existence.  Joseph  while  a  boy  took 
up  his  father's  calling  and  is  reported  by  his  neigh- 
bors to  have  miraculously  discovered  a  "peep  stone," 
by  which  he  claimed  to  be  able  to  find  hidden  treas- 
ure. This  earned  him  the  nickname  of  "Peep-Stone 
Joe,"  His  operations  carried  him  frequently  into 
Pennsylvania,  where  in  1827,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
two,  he  eloped  with  and  married  the  daughter  of  a 
respectable  farmer. 

Smith's  visions  and  revelations  began  when  he 
was  only  fourteen  years  of  age.  Revival  meetings 
had  turned  his  attention  to  religion,  but  denomina- 
tional disputes  left  him  greatly  unsettled  as  to  which 
one  of  the  many  Churches  he  should  join.  Accord- 
ing to  his  OAvn  account,  he  determined  to  commit 
the  matter  to  the  Lord  in  prayer  in  response  to  the 
Scriptural  invitation  of  James  i.  5.  While  thus  en- 
gaged in  the  woods  near  his  father's  house  "he  be- 
held two  glorious  personages,  wrapped  in  a  brilliant 
light,  standing  above  him  in  the  air."  He  was  told 
in  response  to  his  inquiries  that  he  should  join  none 
of  the  Churches,  that  all  were  wrong,  and  that  the 
true  gospel  would  soon  be  restored  to  men.    Three 

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years  later,  ''after  Joseph  had  retired  for  the  night 
and  was  engaged  in  prayer,  the  room  was  filled  with 
light,  and  the  angel  Moroni  appeared,  who,  among 
other  disclosures,  revealed  the  hiding  place  of  cer- 
tain golden  plates,  upon  which  was  recorded  the 
fullness  of  the  everlasting  gospel."  The  prophet 
received  these  plates  from  the  angel,  the  date  being 
set  down  as  September  22,  1827,  and  with  the  plates 
"two  stones  in  silver  bowls,  deposited  with  the  rec- 
ord, constituting  what  is  called  the  Urim  and 
Thummin,  which  God  had  prepared  for  the  purpose 
of  translating  the  characters  of  the  record."  With 
the  aid  of  these  supernatural  spectacles  Smith  trans- 
lated the  record,  which  was  published  in  1830  as 
the  Book  of  Mormon.  The  plates  were  returned 
mto  the  keeping  of  the  angel. 

In  close  association  with  Smith  in  the  publication 
of  the  Book  of  Mormon  and  in  the  organization  of 
the  Mormon  Church  were  Sidney  Rigdon,  Martin 
Harris,  and  Oliver  Cowdery.  Prefixed  to  the  pub- 
lication is  the  sworn  statement  of  Harris,  Cowdery, 
and  Peter  Whitmer  that  they  had  seen  the  plates 
from  which  the  book  had  been  transcribed.  Harris 
had  been  in  turn  a  Quaker,  Universalist,  Baptist, 
and  Presbyterian,  but  "always  a  dreamer  and 
fanatic,"  affirming  that  he  had  visited  the  moon. 
Harris  mortgaged  his  farm  in  order  to  provide  for 
the  publication  of  Smith's  book ;  and  as  the  sale  was 
slow,  he  forfeited  his  property.  Cowdery  was  a 
schoolmaster  who  served  as  Smith's  amanuensis. 
All  three  witnesses  who  certified  to  the  authenticity 
of  Smith's  manuscript  later  fell  away  from  Mor- 

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monism  and  declared  their  previous  testimony  to 
be  false. 

The  Book  of  Mormon  has  fifteen  divisions,  or 
books,  which  purport  to  have  been  written  by  as 
many  different  hands.  It  sets  forth  the  history  of 
certain  imaginary  races  of  people  who  anciently  in- 
habited America.  One  tribe,  called  the  "J^^^^^i^^s," 
came  directly  from  the  Tower  of  Babel.  The  sec- 
ond race  came  directly  from  the  city  of  Jerusalem. 
The  Jaredites  were  destroyed.  The  remnant  of  the 
Israelitish  settlers  are  the  American  Indians.  The 
book  teaches  that  Jesus  Christ  made  his  appear- 
ance on  this  continent  after  his  resurrection  and 
planted  the  true  gospel  and  instituted  the  sacra- 
ments and  the  order  of  priesthood  and  Church 
powers.  But  the  American  people  were  cut  off  in 
consequence  of  their  transgressions,  and  the  last  of 
their  prophets.  Mormon,  was  charged  to  write  the 
gospel  and  hide  it  in  the  earth.  The  golden  plates 
dug  up  by  Joseph  Smith,  therefore,  bring  to  light  in 
these  latter  days  the  book  of  the  prophet  Mormon. 

Non-Mormon  theories  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
Book  of  Mormon  usually  agree  in  connecting  It  with 
a  certain  manuscript  entitled  "Manuscript  Found," 
by  Solomon  Spaulding,  containing  an  Imaginary  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  the  American  Indians.  Cred- 
ible evidence  goes  to  show  that  this  manuscript  was 
accessible  to  Rev.  Sidney  RIgdon  for  more  than  two 
years  before  the  publication  of  the  Book  of  Mor- 
mon and  that  RIgdon  and  Smith  were  associated 
during  this  time.  RIgdon  had  been  a  printer  in 
Pittsburg,  where  the  manuscript  had  been  sent  for 
publication  and  later  became  In  turn  a  Baptist  and 

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a  *'Campbellite"  preacher.  Internal  evidence  of  the 
book  strongly  reflects  the  preaching  of  Rigdon  and 
the  religious  disputes  of  the  times.  In  the  language 
of  one  investigator,  *'It  is  not  specially  important 
to  knov^  who  edited  the  Spaulding  story  and  de- 
veloped it  into  the  present  Book  of  Mormon.  But 
all  the  evidence  points  to  Sidney  Rigdon,  and  it 
points  to  no  one  else.  His  ^speech  bewrayeth'  him 
in  the  employment  of  phraseology  to  w^hich  he  had 
become  accustomed  while  associated  with  the  breth- 
ren of  that  denomination,"  referring  to  his  afflliation 
with  the  movement  just  beginning  under  Campbell. 
(R.  G.  McNiece,  D.D.,  "Mormonism :  Its  Origin, 
Characteristics,  and  Doctrines,"  article  in  the 
Fundamentals.) 

In  183 1  Joseph  Smith  and  a  small  company  of 
"converts"  moved  to  Kirtland,  Ohio,  where  they 
found  a  more  inviting  field  for  their  doctrines. 
Missionaries  were  sent  out,  and  as  a  result  of  their 
labors  the  new  Church  numbered  within  a  few 
months  more  than  twelve  hundred  members.  Com- 
munal business  enterprises  were  established,  among 
them  a  bank,  with  Smith  at  its  head.  The  bank 
failed.  Judicial  proceedings  were  begun  against 
the  prophet,  but  in  obedience  to  a  revelation  he  fled 
to  Missouri,  whither  many  of  the  saints  had  pre- 
ceded him. 

Smith  found  his  people  in  sore  straits  in  Mis- 
souri, due  to  the  hostility  among  the  "Gentiles,"  or 
non-Mormons.  The  State  government  assigned  the 
Mormons  a  place  of  residence  In  the  thinly  settled 
western  portion  of  the  State,  and  here  the  town  of 
Far  West  was  founded.     The  enmity  of  the  Gen- 

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tiles  led  to  the  formation  among  the  Mormons  of 
the  "Danite  Band,"  a  secret  order  sworn  to  obey 
any  behest  of  the  Church  against  property  or  Hfe. 
It  was  here  also  that  the  tithing  system  w^as  intro- 
duced. But  peace  for  the  saints  was  short-lived 
in  the  new  Zion.  The  Church  leaders  came  under 
suspicion  of  misappropriation  of  trust  funds,  and 
many  prominent  members  forsook  the  organization. 
Conflicts  again  broke  out  between  Mormons  and 
Gentiles  and  between  the  Mormons  and  the  State 
authorities.  A  general  exodus  of  the  saints  fol- 
lowed, about  fifteen  thousand  crossing  into  Illinois. 
The  troubles  of  the  new  sect  had  attracted  wide  at- 
tention ;  and  as  missionaries  continued  to  go  far  and 
wide,  even  to  England,  bringing  in  hundreds  of  re- 
cruits and  sympathizers.  Smith  immediately  began 
to  plan  a  new  Zion  on  a  larger  scale.  The  tithing 
system  kept  the  coffers  of  the  Church  full.  In 
obedience  to  a  "revelation,"  he  laid  out  the  city  of 
Nauvoo,  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  In  Han- 
cock County,  111.  It  was  the  prophet's  purpose  to 
found  a  theocracy,  with  himself  at  Its  head  as  God's 
vicegerent.  At  Nauvoo  Smith  attained  his  greatest 
eminence  and  power  in  the  Church.  His  headship 
was  undisputed  in  both  temporal  and  spiritual  af- 
fairs of  the  community.  He  took  the  title  of 
"Prophet,  Seer,  and  Revelator,  Apostle  of  Jesus 
Christ  and  Elder  of  the  Church."  It  Is  recorded 
that  in  1842  eight  ships  were  chartered  to  transport 
the  converts  from  England  to  America.  The  ambi- 
tions of  the  prophet  knew  no  bounds,  and  In  1844  he 
announced  for  the  Presidency  of  the  United  States. 
It  w^as  at  Nauvoo  that  the  doctrine  of  polygamy 


HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

was  first  announced.  There  are  evidences  that  it 
had  been  practiced  long  before  in  Ohio  and  Mis- 
souri;  but  owing  to  the  antagonism  which  it  was 
feared  the  practice  would  arouse,  it  was  kept  within 
close  bounds  until  the  saints  should  grow  stronger 
in  numbers.  At  Nauvoo  the  doctrine  seems  to  have 
been  announced  in  obedience  to  a  convenient  reve- 
lation to  quiet  the  indignation  of  Smith's  wife  at 
his  profligacy. 

But  the  prophet's  career  was  nearing  its  close. 
Internal  dissensions  arose  over  the  plural  wife  doc- 
trine and  on  account  of  Smith's  autocratic  govern- 
ment. Riots  broke  out,  and  many  of  the  citizens 
fled.  Public  indignation  ran  high  among  the  Gen- 
tiles, and  a  movement  was  set  on  foot  to  drive  the 
Mormons  out  of  the  State.  Both  sides  took  up 
arms.  Smith  and  his  brother  Hyrum  were  arrested 
on  a  charge  of  treason  and  lodged  in  the  jail  at 
Carthage.  Llere,  notwithstanding  the  presence  of 
twelve  hundred  State  militia,  on  the  night  of  June 
27,  1844,  a  mob  assaulted  the  jail  and  shot  to  death 
Joseph  and  Hyrum  Smith. 

After  the  death  of  their  leader  the  Mormons  split 
up  into  dififerent  followings,  according  as  rival 
claimants  for  the  prophetic  office  were  acknowl- 
edged. One  J.  J.  Strang  loudly  proclaimed  his  right 
to  succeed  the  prophet  and  led  off  a  company  to 
Wisconsin,  where  he  established  a  "kingdom"  on  an 
island  in  Lake  Michigan.  In  1856  he  was  shot  and 
killed  in  a  row,  and  his  followers  dispersed.  The 
ever-prominent  Sidney  Rigdon  secured  a  following, 
but  his  movement  soon  came  to  naught.  A  still 
larger  company  took  the  name  of  "Young  Joseph- 

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ites,"  after  Joseph  Smith,  Jr.,  and  formed  the  Reor- 
ganized Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-Day 
Saints.  (See  below.)  But  the  main  body  of  the 
Mormons  acknowledged  the  claims  of  Brigham 
Young,  "the  lion  of  the  Lord." 

Young  was  a  man  of  great  native  force  and 
ability,  but  with  limited  education  and  wholly  with- 
out culture.  He  had  embraced  Mormonism  in  New 
York  in  1832  and  soon  joined  the  prophet  at  Kirt- 
land.  He  had  rendered  notable  service  to  the 
Church  as  missionary,  as  one  of  the  Quorum  of 
Twelve  Apostles  (instituted  in  1835),  and  it  was 
he  who  had  directed  the  movement  from  Missouri 
into  Illinois  during  the  troublous  times  of  1838. 
The  crisis  in  Mormon  affairs  following  Smithes 
death  led  to  tlie  plan  of  a  migration  to  a  locality 
beyond  the  borders  of  civilization  where  the  saints 
might  be  free  from  molestation.  Young  organized 
and  conducted  the  expedition  which,  beginning  in 
1846,  succeeded  by  the  close  of  1848  in  transferring 
the  larger  body  of  Mormons  to  the  valley  of  Great 
Salt  Lake,  in  Utah. 

Brigham  Young's  administration  of  the  affairs  of 
the  Church,  beginning  in  1844,  continued  until  his 
death,  in  1871,  during  which  time  he  exercised  abso- 
lute sway.  He  not  only  completed  and  perfected 
the  Mormon  hierarchy  and  largely  refashioned  and 
gave  effect  to  the  body  of  Mormon  doctrines,  but 
founded  an  important  State.  He  extended  the  mis- 
sionary forces  of  the  Church  and  brought  into  the 
valley  a  constant  stream  of  new  adherents  to  the 
faith.  Under  the  presidency  of  Brigham  Young 
polygamy  became   the   rule   among  the   Mormons. 

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Young  himself  was,  first  and  last,  the  husband  of 
twenty-five  wives  and  the  father  of  fifty-six  chil- 
dren. 

Since  the  death  of  Young  the  Mormon  hierarchy 
has  had  at  its  head  successively  John  Taylor,  Wil- 
ford  Woodruff,  Lorenzo  Snow,  and  the  present  in- 
cumbent, Joseph  F.  Smith,  a  son  of  Hyrum  Smith. 
The  system  of  government  in  the  Church  has  at  its 
head  the  President,  who  succeeds  also  to  the  office 
of  "prophet,  seer,  and  revelator"  instituted  by 
Joseph  Smith.  The  President,  with  his  two  coun- 
selors, is  called  the  First  Presidency.  The  Quorum 
of  Twelve  Apostles  constitutes  a  sort  of  traveling 
episcopacy,  or  overseers,  under  the  direction  of  the 
First  Presidency.  Next  in  order  are  the  Seventies, 
or  seventy  elders,  who  are  under  seven  presidents. 
The  seventy  elders,  with  their  presidents,  constitute 
the  Melchizedek,  or  Higher  Priesthood.  The 
Aaronic,  or  Lower  Priesthood,  consists  of  priests, 
teachers,  and  deacons.  The  territory  of  the  Church 
is  divided  into  "Stakes  of  Zion,"  in  distinction  from 
Zion  proper,  which  is  in  Jackson  County,  Mo., 
where  the  saints  expect  to  gather  at  last  to  receive 
the  returning  Christ.  The  stakes  are  divided  into 
wards.  Each  stake  has  a  complete  hierarchy,  a 
miniature  copy  of  that  over  the  entire  Church,  and 
each  ward  has  a  bishop,  who  is  assisted  by  under 
officers. 

According  to  a  Mormon  statement,  their  system 
"consists  of  doctrines,  commandments,  ordinances, 
and  rites  revealed  from  God  to  the  present  age." 
The  Bible  is  accepted  "in  so  far  as  it  is  correctly 
translated.     We  also  accept  the  Book  of  Mormon 

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as  the  Word  of  God."  But  such  Hberties  have  been 
taken  with  the  Bible  as  to  leave  it  without  any 
meaning  to  a  Mormon,  and  the  Book  of  Mormon  is 
but  a  historical  relic  as  an  authority  in  comparison 
with  the  body  of  divinity  which  has  grown  up 
through  the  revelations  of  the  prophets  of  Mormon- 
ism.  ''The  first  principle  of  Mormonism  is  belief  in 
a  present  and  progressive  revelation."  The  outline 
of  Mormon  beliefs,  so  called,  which  is  handed  out 
to  non-Mormons  by  the  Mormon  missionaries,  does 
not  contain  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  this  sect.  The 
doctrines  which  the  Mormons  emphasize  among 
themselves  in  these  modern  times  are  startling  to 
an  evangelical  Christian  mind.  For  example,  the 
Mormon  theory  of  God  is  that  he  is  Adam  exalted. 
Adam  "is  our  father  and  our  God,  and  the  only  God 
with  whom  we  have  to  do,"  according  to  Brigham 
Young.  Mormonism  teaches  that  those  who  build 
up  large  polygamous  establishments  on  earth  will 
be  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  gods  in  the  after  life 
and  will  rule  over  kingdoms.  "God  himself  was 
once  as  we  are  now,"  says  Joseph  Smith,  "and  is 
an  exalted  man.  .  .  .  And  you  have  got  to  learn 
how  to  be  gods  yourselves,  the  same  as  other  gods 
have  done  before  you."  The  Mormon  Catechism 
scouts  the  idea  of  one  God.  "Are  there  more  gods 
than  one?  Yes,  many."  These  gods  continue  to 
multiply  their  progeny  in  the  heavenly  world  by 
their  "celestial  wives,"  the  women  who  were 
"sealed"  to  them  in  this  world.  The  "sealing,"  or 
"celestial  marriage,"  ceremony  is  performed  only  in 
the  temple  at  Salt  Lake  City  and  is  attended  by 
secret  rites  to  which  only  the  faithful  are  admitted. 

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Obedience  to  the  priesthood  is  a  cardinal  law  of 
the  Mormon.  Baptism  is  by  immersion  and  "is  un- 
conditionally necessary  to  salvation."  Infant  bap- 
tism is  rejected.  The  Lord's  Supper  is  observed 
every  Sunday,  in  w^hich  water  in  later  times  has  dis- 
placed the  wine.  Public  worship  consists  of  sing- 
ing, prayers,  and  a  sermon,  which  may  be  on  a  re- 
ligious subject  or  may  be  a  political  harangue. 

Statistics :  The  Bulletin  of  the  Federal  Council  of 
Churches,  giving  statistics  gathered  by  Dr.  H.  K. 
Carroll,  reports  for  the  Utah  branch  of  Latter-Day 
Saints  for  1914  2,150  ministers,  875  churches,  and 
310,000  communicants.  The  Christian  Herald 
Almanac  for  1914  credits  the  Utah  branch,  ''ac- 
cording to  the  last  authoritative  figures,"  with 
3,360  preachers,  1,420  churches,  and  352,500  mem- 
bers. The  United  States  census  of  1906  reported 
215,796  members  of  the  Utah  branch.  The  largest 
number  of  members  is  in  Utah ;  but  they  are  numer- 
ous in  the  States  of  Idaho,  Arizona,  and  Wyoming, 
in  the  order  named.  There  are  about  fifteen  thou- 
sand Mormons  in  Europe  (mostly  in  Great  Britain 
and  the  countries  of  Northern  Europe),  a  consid- 
erable number  In  Canada,  and  several  colonies  in 
Mexico.  The  Church  keeps  about  two  thousand 
missionaries  In  the  field — In  the  United  States  and 
abroad.  This  branch  reports  a  gain  in  member- 
ship of  14,000  for  the  past  year. 

Reorganized  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter- 
Day  Saints. — The  Reorganized  Church  was  formed 
by  a  small  body  of  Mormons  who  disowned  the 
leadership  of  Brigham  Young  and  separated  from 

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the  main  body  in  1844.  The  doctrine  of  polygamy 
was  repudiated  and  has  never  been  practiced  among 
them.  The  Book  of  Mormon  is  accepted  as  of  di- 
vine origin,  and  Joseph  Smith  is  held  as  the  prophet 
of  the  faith.  The  system  of  polity  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  Utah  Mormons.  The  headquarters  of  the 
Church  are  at  Lamoni,  la.,  where  a  publishing 
house,  a  college,  and  homes  for  the  aged  are  main- 
tained. The  Church  was  presided  over  by  Joseph 
Smith,  a  son  of  the  first  President,  until  his  death  at 
Independence,  Mo.,  in  1914. 

Missionary  work  is  carried  on  in  nearly  all  the 
States  and  in  many  foreign  countries.  In  1914  the 
Church  had  65,000  members,  reporting  a  gain  for 
the  previous  year  of  5,000. 


LUTHERANS. 

The  Lutheran  communion  dates  from  the  time  of 
the  Reformation  and  owes  its  origin  and  name  to 
the  great  reformer,  Martin  Luther.  The  name  was 
first  applied  by  Rome  to  all  Protestants  in  derision ; 
but  it  was  not  accepted  without  protest  from 
Luther,  whose  aim  was  not  to  originate  a  sect  or  a 
Church,  but  to  bring  about  a  reform  of  the  entire 
Roman  communion.  The  work  and  doctrines  of 
Luther  are  in  a  large  measure  the  common  in- 
heritance of  Protestantism ;  but  the  movement  be- 
gun by  him  early  divided  into  two  branches,  the 
Lutheran  and  the  Reformed,  or  the  conservative 
and  the  more   radical   wing.     The   more   advanced 

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reformers,  Zwingli,  Calvin,  Knox,  and  others,  held 
that  the  Lutheran  reforms  did  not  go  far  enough ; 
that  they  stopped  short  of  a  complete  break  with 
the  corrupt  usages  and  ceremonies  of  Rome.  Doc- 
trinally,  the  point  of  greatest  divergence  between 
Lutheranism  and  the  Reformed  creed  is  on  the 
sacraments.  The  Lutherans  held  to  the  necessity 
of  baptism  to  salvation.  "Baptism  is  not  simply 
water,"  according  to  a  Lutheran  authority,  "but 
water  comprehended  in  God's  command  and  con- 
nected with  God's  Word";  and  it  has  a  saving  ef- 
fect "produced  by  the  Word  of  God,  which  accom- 
panies and  is  connected  with  the  water,  and  by  our 
faith,  which  relies  on  the  Word  of  God  connected 
with  the  water."  The  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  is  thus  expressed:  They  believe  "in 
the  real  presence  of  Christ's  body  and  blood  in, 
with,  and  under  the  bread  and  wine  during  the 
sacramental  fruition,"  a  doctrine  usually  called  by 
English  writers  consubstantiation,  in  distinction 
from  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine  of  transubstan- 
tiation ;  but  the  term  is  rejected  by  the  Lutherans. 
"Body  and  blood  are  not  mixed  with  nor  locally  In- 
cluded in,  but  sacramentally  and  mysteriously 
united  with,  the  elements."  The  Lutheran  view  of 
the  Scriptures  is  that  they  are  not  only  inspired, 
"but  Inspiring,  possessing  not  only  a  normative,  but 
a  dynamic  character.  In  other  Protestant  systems 
the  sole  office  of  the  Word  is  to  point  the  way  of 
life.  In  Lutheranism  It  communicates  that  whereof 
it  treats."  In  Lutheran  churches  "art  in  the  sanc- 
tuary IS  not  discarded.  The  symbolic  arrangement 
and  decoration  of  God's  house  is  encouraged  so  far 

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as  art  is  expressive  of  the  gospel  and  impressive  as 
an  aid  in  exciting  and  deepening  faith  in  it." 
(Quotations  from  article  **  Lutherans,"  in  New 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia.) 

Lutheranism  is  the  established  Church  in  Den- 
mark, Norway,  and  Sweden.  Lutherans  constitute 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  Protestant  population  of 
the  German  States,  where  its  government  is  in  the 
hands  of  an  ecclesiastical  cabinet  appointed  by  the 
State.  The  people  of  Finland  and  about  one-fourth 
of  the  population  of  Switzerland  are  Lutherans,  and 
this  Church  is  represented  in  practically  every  coun- 
try of  Europe,  the  total  number  of  Lutheran  com- 
municants in  Europe  being  about  60,000,000. 

Dutch  Lutherans  were  among  the  first  settlers 
of  Manhattan  Island,  but  they  were  not  granted  the 
privileges  of  worship  until  the  English  occupation 
in  1664.  Early  Swedish  and  German  immigrants 
planted  Churches  in  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware. 
The  first  synod  was  organized  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1748.  A  general  synod  was  formed  in  1820,  which 
aimed  at  a  union  of  all  Lutheran  bodies  in  the 
United  States.  But  the  Lutherans  in  this  country 
remain  split  up  into  a  great  number  of  separate 
bodies,  or  synods,  formed  in  some  instances  accord- 
ing to  locality  and  in  others  on  the  basis  of  the  lan- 
guage used.  The  following  order  shows  the  com- 
parative strength  of  various  Lutheran  bodies  ac- 
cording to  language  used :  German,  German-Eng- 
lish, English,  Norwegian,  Swedish,  Danish,  Ice- 
landic, Finnish. 

During  recent  years  the  Lutheran  bodies  have 
shown  a  larger  percentage  of  growth  than  any  of 
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the  other  large  Protestant  bodies  in  the  United 
States.  This  is  due  in  part  to  immigration ;  but  the 
Lutherans  are  very  aggressive,  and  their  Church 
activities  are  manifold  and  constantly  expanding. 
The  Lutheran  bodies  maintain  parochial  schools, 
twenty-nine  theological  seminaries,  forty-one  col- 
leges, a  foreign  mission  force  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty  missionaries,  large  home  evangelistic  forces, 
immigrant  stations,  orphanages,  and  hospitals. 
The  twenty-one  bodies  reporting  do  not  differ  ma- 
terially in  doctrine.  In  polity  the  sovereignty  of 
the  local  congregation  is  recognized,  but  the  synods 
have  a  measure  of  judicial  and  executive  authority. 

The  following  are  the  various  divisions,  with  the 
membership  of  each  for  1914,  and  the  principal  lo- 
cality of  the  larger  divisions  is  given  in  cases  where 
the  name  does  not  suggest  it : 

1.  General  Synod,   strongest  in   Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 

Maryland,  and  New  York 340,441 

2.  United    Synod    South,    North    Carolina,    Virginia, 

and  other  Southern  States 52,188 

3.  General  Council,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Min- 

nesota, Illinois,  and  Iowa 479,765 

4.  Synodical   Conference,   Middle  West  and   North- 

west        850,772 

5.  United  Norwegian   (independent  synods).  North- 

west     168,363 

6.  Ohio     136,923 

7.  Buffalo    5,534 

8.  Hauge's  (Norwegian),  Minnesota  and  Northwest.  39,748 

9.  Eielson's,    Northwest    1,100 

ID.  Texas     4,500 

11.  Iowa    116,912 

12.  Norwegian,  Northwest    96,005 

13.  Danish  in  America,  Iowa  and  Wisconsin 16,487 

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14.  Icelandic,   North   Dakota    3,805 

15.  Immanuel,    Pennsylvania   and    Ohio 19,000 

16.  Suomai    (Finnish),  Michigan    15,000 

17.  Finnish   Apostolic,    Michigan    22,000 

18.  Finnish    National    8,000 

19.  Norwegian   Free,    Northwest    26,050 

20.  Danish  United,  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin 13, 337 

21.  Church  of  the  Lutheran  Brethren 2,000 

Independent  congregations 27,500 

Total   Lutherans    2,388,722 

The  bodies  showing  the  largest  numerical  increase 
are :  General  Synod,  Synodical  Conference,  the  Im- 
manuel and  Norwegian  branches. 


MENNONITES. 

The  Mennonites  are  the  successors  o£  the  Ana- 
baptists, a  name  given  to  the  scattered  elements  of 
a  party  which  arose  in  Switzerland  about  1523. 
The  movement  was  directed  chiefly  against  infant 
baptism,  and  their  converts  were  rebaptized ;  hence 
the  name.  The  Anabaptists  were  mercilessly  per- 
secuted, and  they  became  divided,  one  branch  going 
ofif  into  mysticism,  the  other  into  the  wildest  fanati- 
cism. The  latter  undertook  to  establish  the  king- 
dom of  God  on  earth  by  force.  The  city  of  Miinster 
was  forcibly  taken  and  made  the  center  of  the  pro- 
posed kingdom.  A  community  of  goods  was  in- 
stituted, polygamy  was  adopted,  missionaries  were 
sent  out,  and  threats  delivered  to  the  governing 
princes  of  surrounding  States  to  surrender  on  pain 
of  death.  Under  "King"  John  of  Leyden  the  Miin- 
ster fanatics  are  said  to  have  practiced  the  grossest 

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licentiousness.  The  city  was  reduced  in  1535,  the 
leaders  executed,  and  their  forces  were  scattered. 

Menno  Simons,  a  converted  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  who  had  been  a  preacher  of  the  sect,  but  who 
had  opposed  the  Miinster  party,  succeeded  in  gath- 
ering many  of  the  scattered  Miinsterites  and  or- 
ganizing congregations  in  the  Netherlands  and  in 
Germany  on  a  more  spiritual  basis.  His  work  of 
reorganization  after  the  Miinster  disaster  led  to 
the  new  body's  taking  his  name. 

The  Mennonite  Confession  of  Faith,  adopted  in 
Holland  in  1632  and  which  still  forms  the  doctrinal 
basis  of  the  Church,  consists  of  eighteen  articles. 
These  embody  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity,  the  fall 
of  man,  and  the  atonement  as  held  by  all  evangeli- 
cal Churches.  Among  the  distinctive  doctrines  are 
those  of  nonresistance  and  forbidding  the  use  of 
oaths.  Baptism  is  administered  to  believers  only 
by  pouring,  except  in  one  or  two  branches.  The 
Lord's  Supper  is  observed  but  twice  a  year,  usually 
in  the  spring  and  fall,  preceded  by  Church  exami- 
nations into  the  standing  and  character  of  every 
member.  Strict  discipline  is  enforced  against  of- 
fending members.  Following  the  observance  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  the  ceremony  of  foot-washing 
is  performed,  during  which,  as  well  as  in  the  *'kiss 
of  peace"  following  the  ceremony,  the  sexes  are 
separated.  The  bearing  of  arms  and  holding  office 
under  the  State  are  discouraged. 

The  Mennonites  have  bishops,  or  elders,  who 
exercise  administrative  oversight  in  districts.  Pas- 
tors of  congregations  are  chosen  from  the  congre- 
gation to  be  served,  sometimes  by  lot.    Deacons  are 

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also  chosen  from  the  congregation  in  the  same  man- 
ner. In  the  absence  of  the  minister  the  deacon 
takes  charge  of  pubHc  meetings. 

The  Mennonites  now  number  throughout  the 
world  about  250,000,  of  which  60,000  are  in  Hol- 
land, 18,000  in  Germany,  a  few  in  Switzerland  and 
France,  70,000  in  Russia,  20,000  in  Canada,  and  a 
total  of  57,337  (1911)  in  the  United  States,  the 
number  in  this  country  being  distributed  among 
twelve  branches.  Pennsylvania,  where  Mennonite 
immigrants  first  settled  in  1683,  is  still  the  State 
of  their  greatest  strength,  and  here  they  retain  their 
early  language,  known  as  "Pennsylvania  Dutch." 
Mennonites  are  numerous  also  in  the  States  of 
Ohio,  Kansas,  Indiana,  and  Illinois. 


METHODISTS. 

*Tt  was  just  at  the  time,"  to  use  the  words  of  the 
founder  of  Methodism,  "when  we  wanted  but  little 
of  filling  up  the  measure  of  iniquity  that  two  or 
three  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England  began 
vehemently  to  call  sinners  to  repentance."  There 
were  sinners  enough,  if  the  universal  testimony  of 
the  literature  bearing  on  the  period  is  true.  Infi- 
delity, vice,  drunkenness,  licentiousness,  grossness, 
extravagance,  corruption  are  some  of  the  terms 
used  to  characterize  the  morals  of  what  called  itself 
the  best  society  of  England  during  the  first  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  At  the  opposite  social  ex- 
treme the  masses  had  sunk  Into  degradation  and 
hopelessness  bordering  on  heathenism.     The  crimi- 

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nal  classes,  increasing  in  numbers  and  boldness, 
terrorized  the  population,  notwithstanding  the  ex- 
treme harshness  of  the  laws.  Powerless  in  the  face 
of  such  conditions,  the  Established  Church  was  it- 
self in  need  of  rescue.  Its  theology  was  "cold  and 
colorless,"  its  clergy  for  the  most  part  ''ignorant, 
indolent,  and  unspiritual,  preaching  not  good  news, 
but  good  advice."  According  to  Leckey,  "beyond  a 
belief  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  a  general 
acknowledgment  of  the  veracity  of  the  four  Gospel 
narratives,  the  divines  of  that  day  taught  little 
which  might  not  have  been  taught  by  the  disciples 
of  Socrates  or  the  followers  of  Confucius."  Arch- 
bishop Seeker  acknowledges  that  "Christianity  is 
now  ridiculed  and  railed  at  with  very  little  reserve 
and  the  teachers  of  it  without  any  at  all." 

But  even  in  such  times  there  were  devout  souls 
"waiting  for  the  consolation  of  Israel."  One  such 
was  Samuel  Wesley,  rector  of  Epworth  parish, 
whose  prophetic  words  addressed  to  his  son  Charles, 
"The  Christian  faith  will  surely  revive  in  this  king- 
dom ;  you  shall  see  it,  but  I  shall  not,"  were  soon 
to  come  true.  The  first  step  toward  the  revival, 
and  the  beginning  of  Methodism,  dates  from  No- 
vember, 1729,  when  a  small  company  of  Oxford 
students  began  to  spend  certain  evenings  in  the 
week  in  reading  the  New  Testament  and  in  prayer. 
They  gave  themselves  also  to  many  works  of 
charity.  The  methodical  conduct  of  their  lives 
gained  them  the  name  of  Methodists,  given  in  de- 
rision by  their  fellow  students.  The  first  Meth- 
odists were  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  Robert  Kirk- 
ham,  and  William  Morgan.    George  Whitefield  was 

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a  later  accession  to  the  Oxford  company.  The  rul- 
ing spirit  of  this  group  of  Methodists,  and  the  cen- 
tral and  dominant  figure  of  Methodism  as  long  as 
he  lived,  was  John  Wesley  (born  1703,  died  1791). 
Wesley  was  well  fitted  both  by  birth  and  training 
for  the  place  he  filled.  He  had  on  both  sides  a  dis- 
tinguished ministerial  ancestry,  of  Nonconformist 
views,  but  his  father  had  taken  orders  in  the  Church 
of  England.  Wesley  took  his  master's  degree  at 
Oxford  in  1724,  was  ordained  deacon  in  1725,  and 
elected  a  fellow  of  Lincoln  College  the  following 
year.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1728  and  for  a 
short  time  was  curate  to  his  father  at  Epworth,  but 
was  recalled  to  Oxford.  It  was  during  this  second 
residence  that  he  became  leader  of  the  Oxford 
Methodists. 

The  little  Oxford  circle  is  important  in  Methodist 
history  in  that  it  gave  rise  to  the  name  and  gave 
expression  to  a  revolt  against  the  spiritual  dead- 
ness  of  the  times;  but  these  pious  students  awak- 
ened nobody  at  this  time,  because  they  were  seeking 
their  own  peace  by  the  observance  of  a  punctilious 
legal  righteousness.  The  Wesleys  went  to  Georgia 
in  1736,  Charles  as  secretary  to  General  Oglethorpe 
and  John  as  missionary  to  the  Indians.  On  the  out- 
ward voyage  John  was  deeply  impressed  with  the 
religious  views  of  some  Moravian  fellow  pas- 
sengers and  particularly  at  the  self-possession  and 
trust  they  displayed  during  a  violent  storm.  His 
two  years'  ministry  in  Georgia  he  accounted  a  fail- 
ure, and  he  returned  to  England  with  a  melancholy 
view  of  his  own  religious  condition.  He  sought 
out  a  Moravian  society  in  Aldersgate  Street,  Lon- 

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don,  and  attended  their  meetings.  It  was  at  one  of 
these  on  the  evening  of  May  29,  1738,  while  hearing 
the  reading  of  Luther's  preface  to  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  in  which  the  great  reformer  explained  the 
way  of  salvation  by  faith,  that  Wesley  found  peace. 
To  use  his  own  words:  "I  felt  my  heart  strangely 
warmed;  I  felt  that  I  did  trust  in  Christ,  in  Christ 
alone,  for  salvation ;  and  an  assurance  was  given  me 
that  he  had  taken  away  my  sins,  even  mine,  and 
saved  me  from  the  law  of  sin  and  death."  "In  that 
moment,"  says  Dr.  J.  M.  Buckley,  "evangelical 
Methodism  was  born." 

Charles  Wesley  (who  had  returned  to  England) 
and  George  Whitefield  had  already  enjoyed  a  new 
experience  and  were  now  preaching  salvation  by 
faith,  the  latter  to  thousands  in  the  open  air.  The 
Wesleys,  because  of  their  High  Church  notions, 
were  cautious  on  the  point  of  outdoor  preaching; 
but  finding  the  doors  of  the  Established  Church 
closed  against  them,  and  observing  the  eagerness 
of  the  masses  to  hear  the  gospel,  John  Wesley  soon 
followed  Whitefield's  example.  The  revival  spread 
with  wonderful  rapidity  and  with  a  revolutionary 
effect  upon  English  life.  Wesley  became  the  leader 
in  this  movement,  as  he  had  been  in  its  forerunner 
at  Oxford,  not  by  self-appointment,  but  by  natural 
gifts  and  providential  leading.  He  was  soon  con- 
fronted with  the  necessity  of  caring  for  thousands 
of  converts  for  whom  the  Church  of  England  had 
no  place.  Wesley  entertained  no  thought  of  a  new 
Church  and  seems  to  have  had  no  plans  beyond 
meeting  the  exigencies  of  the  new  situation.  The 
first  society  of  converts  was  brought  together  In 

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1739  and  attached  to  a  Moravian  congregation  in 
Fetter  Lane,  London.  Wesley  soon  found  it  neces- 
sary to  dissent  from  some  doctrines  taught  by  the 
Moravians,  and  in  the  following  year  he  transferred 
his  society  to  an  old  and  disused  government  build- 
ing known  as  the  Foundry,  and  here  in  July,  I740> 
"The  Methodist  Society  in  London"  was  formed. 
The  Foundry  was  for  many  years  the  headquarters 
of  Methodism. 

Within  five  years  after  his  first  open-air  sermon 
Wesley  had  forty-five  preachers  associated  with 
him  in  conserving  the  work  of  the  revival,  and  there 
were  more  than  two  thousand  members  of  the  so- 
cieties in  London  alone.  Whitefield,  who  was  a 
stanch  Calvinist,  broke  with  Wesley  on  account  of 
the  latter's  Arminianism,  and  a  small  following  of 
Calvlnistic  Methodists  went  with  him.  The  chief 
contribution  of  Charles  Wesley  to  the  revival  and 
to  modern  evangelical  Christianity  was  his  hymns. 
A  few  of  Wesley's  colaborers  were  clergymen  from 
the  Church  of  England;  but  he  relied  mainly  upon 
the  lay  preachers  raised  up  by  the  movement. 
These  were  unordained  itinerating  evangelists,  who, 
in  the  zeal  and  joy  of  their  new-found  life,  pro- 
claimed an  effective  gospel.  "After  Wesley,  lay- 
men were  the  founders  of  Methodism,"  says  John 
Alfred  Faulkner.  "It  was  their  preaching,  their 
sufferings,  their  heroism  which  turned  the  tide  of 
immorality  and  irreliglon  and,  as  Leckey  well  says, 
saved  England  from  a  French  Revolution." 

The  thousands  of  converts,  stirred  into  a  new  life 
under  this  powerful  preaching  and  gathered  for  the 
most  part  from  the  middle  and  lower  classes,  the 

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great  neglected  population,  were  brought  together 
in  societies,  and  these  divided  into  classes,  over 
which  leaders  were  appointed  for  close  supervision 
of  the  member's  spiritual  progress.  Many  chapels 
were  reared  to  house  the  new  congregations.  Wes- 
ley grouped  together  several  congregations  and  put 
them  in  charge  of  one  of  his  assistants,  thus  origi- 
nating the  circuit  system.  In  1743  he  drew  up  the 
General  Rules,  which  are  still  recognized  in  every 
branch  of  Methodism  as  a  model  digest  of  Scriptural 
rules  of  conduct.  Wesley  had  his  preachers  and 
leaders  meet  in  quarterly  and  district  conferences 
and,  beginning  in  1744,  in  annual  conferences. 
Every  interest  of  the  rapidly  expanding  movement 
had  over  it  the  trained  eye  of  Wesley  himself,  whose 
labors  were  prodigious.  He  visited  every  part  of 
the  British  Isles,  most  of  the  territory  over  and 
over  again,  preached  from  two  to  four  times  daily, 
and  traveled  (on  horseback  until  advancing  age 
compelled  him  to  use  a  carriage)  about  4,500  miles 
a  year.  He  found  time  for  an  amazing  amount  of 
literary  work. 

Though  the  Wesleyan  revival  was,  theoretically, 
a  movement  within  the  Church  of  England,  and 
both  John  and  Charles  Wesley  lived  and  died  with- 
out ever  severing  their  relations  with  that  com- 
munion, the  continued  Inhospitable  attitude  of  the 
Established  Church  toward  the  Methodists  made 
the  case  only  too  plain  that  they  must  provide  for 
themselves.  Wesley  reluctantly  became  reconciled 
to  this  fact  and  accordingly,  toward  the  close  of  his 
life,  Instituted  measures  to  prevent  the  dissolution 
of  the  societies  after  his  death.     By  the   Deed  of 

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Declaration,  drawn  up  in  1784,  the  Yearly  Confer- 
ence was  given  a  permanent  legal  standing.  This 
act  secured  the  property  to  the  societies  and  gave 
all  the  congregations  a  permanent  connectional  ex- 
istence. But  it  was  not  until  after  Wesley's  death 
(1791)  that  English  Methodism  developed  into  a 
Church,  taking  the  name  of  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Connection.  The  steps  taken  after  the  death  of 
Wesley  had  reference  to  holding  service  at  church 
hours,  which  Wesley  had  opposed  out  of  regard  to 
the  Established  Church,  receiving  the  sacraments 
in  their  own  chapels  from  their  own  ministers,  lay 
representation  in  the  conferences,  and  larger  liber- 
ties of  local  societies  in  the  conduct  of  their  own  af- 
fairs. 

In  polity  Wesleyan  Methodism  is  described  as 
"neither  Episcopal,  Presbyterian,  nor  Congrega- 
tional, but  has  characteristics  of  each."  The  Yearly 
Conference  is  the  ruling  body  for  the  whole  connec- 
tion, subject  to  conditions  laid  down  in  the  Deed  of 
Declaration.  It  is  a  threefold  conference,  being  in 
part  an  assembly  of  pastors,  having  to  do  with 
questions  pertaining  to  the  ministry;  in  part  "it  is 
a  conjoint  assembly  of  ministers  and  lay  brethren 
convened  to  receive  reports,  deliberate  and  deter- 
mine in  regard  to  the  general  interest  of  the  con- 
nection." And  at  the  close  the  "Legal  Conference, 
as  a  matter  of  necessary  legal  form  and  solemnity, 
adopts  what  has  been  done  in  the  sessions  of  the 
General  Conference."  The  provincial  "synod"  occu- 
pies a  place  intermediate  to  the  conference  and  the 
local,  or  circuit,  meetings.  The  synod  may  nullify 
an  act  of  the  conference  by  refusing  to  ratify  it. 

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The  administration  of  the  affairs  of  each  society  is 
vested  in  the  leaders'  meeting;  that  of  the  whole 
circuit  in  a  qiiarterly  meeting  composed  of  the  lay 
officers  of  the  circuit.  There  is  also  a  local  preach- 
ers' quarterly  meeting,  presided  over  by  the  "super- 
intendent minister"  of  the  circuit.* 

Divisions  in  English  Methodism  have  given  rise 
to  (i)  the  Calvinistic  Methodists,  noted  above 
(after  Whitefield's  death  these  divided,  one  branch 
being  known  as  Lady  Huntingdon's  Connection. 
It  has  disappeared.  The  branch  that  survives  is 
the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists.  See  "Presby- 
terians") ;  (2)  the  Methodist  New  Connection, 
formed  in  1797;  (3)  the  Primitive  Methodist  Con- 
nection, 1810;  (4)  the  Bible  Christians,  1815;  (5) 
the  Protestant  Methodists,  1828;  (6)  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Association,  1835.  The  most  serious  di- 
vision occurred  in  1849-57,  when  a  number  of  min- 
isters and  120,000  members  left  the  main  body  on 
account  of  the  autocratic  rule  of  Jabez  Bunting,  the 
President  of  the  Conference,  These  joined  in  union 
with  the  Protestant  Methodists  and  Association 
Methodists  and  formed  the  United  Methodist 
Church.  The  three  main  bodies  of  Methodists  at 
the  present  time  are  the  Wesleyan  Methodists,  the 
Primitive  Methodists,  and  the  United  Methodists. 
There  is  a  small  body  known  as  the  Wesleyan  Re- 
form Union  and  a  number  of  independent  Meth- 
odist Churches. 

*For  a  full  exposition  of  the  importance  of  the  lay  preachers 
in  British  Methodism,  see  article  "Local  Preachers  in  the 
British  Wesleyan  Church,"  in  Methodist  Review,  January, 
1915. 

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The  following  statistics  are  taken  from  the  Meth- 
odist Yearbook  for  1915: 

Church 

Lay  Members 

Denomination.  Ministers.    Preachers.  and  Pro- 

VVesleyan  Methodists: 

Great  Britain   2,513  19,463  508,563 

Ireland   250  646  28,116 

Foreign  Missions   681  5,524  166,851 

French   Conference    41  82  1,715 

South  African  Conference 280  4,300  I3i,474 

Primitive   Methodists    i,i57  I5,7i8  207,356 

United  Methodist  Church 851  6,224  185,486 

Wesleyan  Reform  Union 26  490  8,519 

Independent  Methodist  Churches..  411          8,905 

Australasian    Methodist   Church...  985  8,634  I49>878 

New  Zealand  Methodist  Church...  199  949  23,181 

Japan  Methodist  Church 215          14,569 

Totals     7,609        62,032        1,434,613 

The  first  Methodist  society  In  America  was  or- 
ganized in  New  York  in  1766  as  a  result  of  the 
preaching  of  Philip  Embury,  an  Irish  local  preacher, 
who  was  aroused  to  duty  by  Barbara  Heck,  another 
Irish  immigrant.  To  Barbara  Heck,  who  is  called 
the  mother  of  American  Methodism,  is  due  also  the 
planting  of  the  cause  in  Canada,  whither  she  re- 
moved with  her  family  in  1774.  Embury  in  New 
York  was  soon  reenforced  by  Thomas  Webb,  an 
English  local  preacher  and  captain  in  the  British 
army.  The  work  prospered,  occupying  at  first  Em- 
bury's house,  then  an  old  sail  loft,  and  in  1768  its 
own  church  building,  "Wesley  Chapel,"  now  John 
Street  Church.  About  the  same  time  Robert  Straw- 
bridge,  another  Irish  immigrant,  started  an  awaken- 
ing   in    Maryland    by    his    preaching,    assisted    by 

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Robert  Williams,  who  became  the  apostle  of  Meth- 
odism in  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas.  Strawbridge 
built  a  log  meetinghouse  on  Sam's  Creek,  in  Mary- 
land, which  contests  with  the  New  York  chapel  the 
honor  of  being  the  first  Methodist  church  in  the 
New  World. 

Captain  Webb  planted  Methodism  in  Philadelphia 
and  formed  classes  in  New  Jersey  and  other  parts. 
Webb  returned  to  England,  and  it  was  through  his 
influence  that  Wesley's  attention  was  directed  to 
the  needs  in  America.  At  the  conference  in  1769 
Richard  Boardman  and  Joseph  Pilmoor  were  ap- 
pointed to  assist  their  brethren  on  this  side,  and 
they  brought  over  £50  which  had  been  col- 
lected at  the  conference  "as  a  token  of  brotherly 
love"  for  the  assistance  of  the  American  societies. 
Francis  Asbury  and  Richard  Wright  were  sent  over 
in  1771,  Asbury  coming  as  "assistant  superintend- 
ent" of  the  new  societies.  Asbury  was  soon  super- 
seded by  Thomas  Rankin,  who  arrived  with  Wes- 
ley's authority  to  become  "superintendent  of  the 
entire  work  of  Methodism  in  America."  To  Ran- 
kin belongs  the  distinction  of  convening  and  pre- 
siding over  the  first  conference  in  America,  held  in 
Philadelphia  in  1773.  Ten  preachers  were  present, 
and  1,560  members  were  reported,  the  bulk  of  them 
being  in  Maryland  and  Virginia.  The  list  of  ap- 
pointments made  at  that  conference  was  as  follows : 
New  York,  Thomas  Rankin;  Philadelphia,  George 
Shadford ;  New  Jersey,  John  King  and  William 
Watters ;  Baltimore,  Francis  Asbury,  Robert  Straw- 
bridge,  Abraham  W^hitworth,  and  Joseph  Yearby; 
Norfolk,  Richard  Wright ;  Petersburg,  Robert  Wil- 

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Hams.  The  conference  acknowledged  the  authority 
of  Wesley  and  the  British  Conference  and  resolved 
that  the  preachers  should  strictly  avoid  administer- 
ing the  sacraments,  as  not  one  of  them  had  been 
ordained. 

The  Methodists  in  America  prior  to  the  Revolu- 
tion, like  their  brethren  in  England  before  Wesley's 
death,  regarded  themselves  as  members  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  they  depended  upon  a 
grudging  English  clergy  for  the  sacraments.  But 
during  the  v^ar  most  of  the  English  clergy  left  the 
country,  and  w^hen  independence  was  secured  the 
Established  Church  came  to  an  end  in  America. 
The  war  had  separated  the  societies  from  this 
Church,  and  it  was  inevitable  that  they  should  now- 
become  independent  of  English  Methodism  and  set 
up  for  themselves.  The  question  of  administering 
the  ordinances  had  been  up  at  nearly  every  confer- 
ence since  the  first,  but  "laid  over  for  another  year," 
until  at  the  conference — or  a  branch  of  it  repre- 
senting the  Southern  colonies — held  at  Fluvanna, 
Va.,  in  1779  it  was  resolved  to  refuse  the  people  the 
ordinances  no  longer.  The  next  year  the  practice 
was  given  up  in  response  to  overtures  from  Asbury 
and  other  brethren.  ''Certainly  it  was  a  modest 
role  the  early  Methodists  were  content  to  play — to 
bring  the  people  to  Jesus  and  send  them  to  the  Epis- 
copalians and  Presbyterians  for  the  sacraments. 
But  it  was  a  role  that  could  not  in  the  nature  of 
things  be  permanent.  For  look  at  the  increase, 
2,035  ii^  this  fifth  year  of  the  war,  making  10,539 
in  all,  and  fifty-five  preachers."  (Faulkner,  "The 
Methodists.")     This  anomalous  condition  came  to 

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an  end  in  1784,  the  same  year  that  marks  the  prac- 
tical settlement  of  English  Methodism  by  the  Deed 
of  Declaration.  Wesley's  famous  account  of  the 
steps  he  took  and  the  reasons  therefor  in  response 
to  the  appeals  of  the  American  societies  is,  with 
slight  abridgment,  as  follows : 

By  a  very  uncommon  train  of  providences  many  of  the 
provinces  of  America  are  totally  disjoined  from  the  mother 
country  and  erected  into  independent  States.  The  English 
government  has  no  authority  over  them,  either  civil  or  eccle- 
siastical. .  .  .  No  one  either  exercises  or  claims  any  ec- 
clesiastical authority  at  all.  In  this  peculiar  situation  some  of 
the  inhabitants  of  these  States  desire  my  advice,  and  in  com- 
pliance with  their  desire  I  have  drawn  up  a  little  sketch. 

Lord  King's  account  of  the  Primitive  Church  convinced 
me,  many  years  ago,  that  bishops  and  presbyters  are  the  same 
order  and  consequently  have  the  same  right  to  ordain.  For 
many  years  I  have  been  importuned  from  time  to  time  to 
exercise  this  right  by  ordaining  a  part  of  our  preachers.  But 
I  have  still  refused,  not  only  for  peace'  sake,  but  because  I 
was  determined  as  little  as  possible  to  violate  the  established 
order  of  the  national  Church  to  which  I  belonged. 

But  the  case  is  widely  different  between  England  and 
North  America.  Here  there  are  bishops  who  have  a  legal 
jurisdiction ;  in  America  there  are  none,  neither  any  parish 
minister.  So  that  for  some  hundreds  of  miles  together  there 
are  none  either  to  baptize  or  to  administer  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Here,  therefore,  my  scruples  are  at  an  end ;  and  I  conceive 
myself  at  full  liberty,  as  I  violate  no  order  and  invade  no 
man's  rights,  by  appointing  and  sending  laborers  into  the 
harvest. 

I  have,  accordingly,  appointed  Dr.  Coke  and  Mr.  Francis 
Asbury  to  be  joint  superintendents  of  our  brethren  in  America, 
as  also  Richard  Whatcoat  and  Thomas  Vasey  to  act  as  elders 
among  them  by  baptizing  and  administering  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per.        .     . 

If  any  one  will  point  out  a  more  rational  and  Scriptural 
way  of  feeding  and  guiding  these  poor  sheep  in  the  wilderness, 

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I  will  gladly  embrace  it.  At  present  I  cannot  see  any  better 
method  than  that  I  have  taken.  ...  I  desired  the  Bishop 
of  London  to  ordain  one,  but  I  could  not  prevail.  ...  If 
they  could  ordain  them  now,  they  would  expect  to  govern 
them ;  and  how  grievously  this  would  entangle  us !  As  our 
American  brethren  are  now  disentangled  both  from  the  State 
and  English  hierarchy,  we  dare  not  entangle  them  again,  either 
with  the  one  or  the  other.  They  are  now  at  full  liberty  simply 
to  follow  the  Scriptures  and  the  Primitive  Church.  And  we 
judge  it  best  that  they  should  stand  fast  in  that  liberty  where- 
with God  has  so  strangely  set  them  free. 

In  fulfillment  of  their  appointed  mission  Coke, 
Whatcoat,  and  Vasey  arrived  in  America  in  1784 
and  immediately  got  in  touch  with  Asbury  and 
other  leaders.  A  conference  was  called  which  con- 
vened in  Baltimore  on  December  24  of  that  year. 
Coke  presided  and  unfolded  Wesley's  plan.  The 
conference  readily  and  unanimously  fell  in  with  it 
and  proceeded  with  the  organization  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  in  America.  Wesley's  ap- 
pointment of  Coke  and  Asbury  as  superintendents 
was  confirmed  by  election  of  the  Conference,  and 
Asbury  was  ordained  deacon,  elder,  and  superin- 
tendent, and  other  deacons  and  elders  were  or- 
dained, Coke  being  assisted  in  the  ordinations  by 
Whatcoat  and  Vasey.  A  discipline  was  adopted, 
containing  the  General  Rules  and  Articles  of  Re- 
ligion, abridged  by  Wesley  from  the  Thirty-Nine 
Articles,  the  new  form  being  stripped  of  all  dis- 
tinctly Catholic  and  Calvinistic  elements,  and  a 
liturgy,  also  prepared  by  Wesley.  The  liturgy  was 
never  much  used  in  the  Churches  and  soon  dropped 
out  of  notice  entirely.  The  same  is  true  also  of 
"gowns  and  bands,  which  had  a  brief  vogue."  The 
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salary  of  the  regular  preachers  was  fixed  at  sixty- 
four  dollars  a  year,  with  an  extra  allowance  for  wife 
and  children,  but  "with  distinct  prohibition  of  any 
fee  or  present  for  marriages,  baptisms,  or  funerals." 
A  fund  for  worn-out  preachers  was  established, 
supported  mainly  by  the  active  preachers.    ' 

The  Church  now  set  on  its  way  had  104  traveling 
preachers,  as  many  local  preachers,  60  chapels,  800 
recognized  preaching  places,  and  18,000  members. 
(Buckley.)  "Coke  went  everywhere,  baptizing  chil- 
dren and  administering  the  Lord's  Supper,  as  did 
Asbury  wherever  opportunity  offered."  In  1787 
the  superintendents  took  the  title  of  bishop  "for 
brevity's  sake,"  and  the  Conference  approved.  Coke 
soon  returned  to  England,  making  thereafter  only 
brief  visits  to  America ;  and  the  direction  of  the  new 
and  rapidly  expanding  organization  came  to  be  cen- 
tered in  Asbury,  "the  chief  figure  in  the  religious 
history  of  the  United  States  in  the  visible  and  trace- 
able results  of  his  labors,"  according  to  a  non- 
Methodist  observer.  In  truth,  the  travels,  labors, 
and  close  oversight  of  Asbury  in  America  matched 
the  work  of  Wesley  in  England.  "For  forty  years 
under  Asbury  the  headquarters  of  American  Meth- 
odism was  in  the  saddle."  He  traveled  270,000 
miles,  ordained  over  4,000  preachers,  and  presided 
in  234  Annual  Conferences.  Names  next  to  that  of 
Asbury  in  the  early  history  of  American  Methodism 
are  those  of  Jesse  Lee,  who  entered  New  England 
in  1789  and  after  eleven  years  left  that  country  with 
fifty  preachers  and  six  thousand  members,  and  Wil- 
liam McKendree,  who,  as  a  pioneer  presiding  elder, 
established  Methodism  in  the  Western  and  South- 

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western  States  and  after  his  elevation  to  the  epis- 
copacy in  1808  left  a  marked  impression  on  the 
whole  Church  as  a  preacher  and  executive. 

The  Conference  of  1784  adjourned  without  mak- 
ing provision  for  another  General  Conference.  But 
Conferences  embracing  the  whole  Church  were  held 
irregularly  until  1812,  when  the  first  delegated  Gen- 
eral Conference  came  into  existence.  Annual  Con- 
ferences— referring  to  geographical  districts — date 
from  1796,  when  the  territory  of  the  Church  was 
first  mapped  out  into  Conferences  with  names  and 
definite  boundaries.  The  office  of  presiding  elder 
and  the  presiding  elders'  districts  grew  out  of  the 
appointment  and  ordination  of  a  number  of  elders 
at  the  Conference  of  1784  to  travel  over  a  group  of 
circuits  to  administer  the  sacraments. 

The  harmony  among  Methodists  which  charac- 
terized the  inauguration  of  their  system  of  Church 
government  did  not  remain  long  undisturbed.  At 
the  Conference  of  1792  the  Rev.  James  O'Kelley  in- 
troduced a  resolution  proposing  to  give  the  preach- 
ers the  right  of  appeal  to  the  Conference  if  aggrieved 
at  an  appointment.  O'Kelley  was  a  presiding  elder 
from  Virginia,  at  that  time  the  banner  Methodist 
State,  and  he  had  a  considerable  following  which 
gave  his  resolution  warm  support.  But  it  failed; 
and,  smarting  under  Its  failure  and  smarting  at 
Bishop  Asbury,  "whose  wings  O'Kelley  had  pur- 
posed to  clip,"  O'Kelley  left  the  Conference,  accom- 
panied by  a  few  of  his  adherents,  and  returned  to 
Virginia.  A  new  sect  was  formed,  taking  the  name 
of  Republican  Methodists.    These  later  became  one 

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of  the  elements  forming  another  denomination. 
(See  "Christian  Connection.") 

The  agitation  for  larger  privileges  of  laymen  in 
the  Church  came  up  for  consideration  at  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  of  1828.  An  effort  was  made  to 
obtain  lay  representation  in  the  Church  councils, 
but  the  proposal  was  rejected.  The  agitation  did 
not  cease,  but  continued  until  many  of  the  reformers 
were  expelled  from  the  Church,  and  many  others 
left  out  of  sympathy.  At  a  meeting  of  these,  held 
in  Baltimore  in  1828,  a  provisional  Church  organiza- 
tion was  formed,  which,  two  years  later  at  a  more 
largely  attended  Conference  in  the  same  city,  Avas 
completed  as  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church. 
Within  a  few  years  the  new  organization  drew 
away  50,000,  many  prominent  ministers  and  laymen 
among  them.  The  laymen  were  given  full  rights 
in  all  Church  councils,  a  reform  which  has  since 
been  adopted  in  other  branches  of  Methodism.  The 
Methodist  Protestant  has  come  to  be  the  largest 
body  of  nonepiscopal  Methodists  in  the  United 
States. 

The  slavery  question  produced  the  next  dis- 
turbance in  Methodist  history,  dividing  the  Church 
seventeen  years  before  it  divided  the  nation.  Prior 
to  the  division  of  the  Church,  however,  a  small  but 
radical  antislavery  and  antisecret  society  element 
split  off  and  formed  at  Utica,  N.Y.,  May  31,  1843, 
the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Connection  of  America. 
The  episcopate  was  rejected,  the  itinerancy  modi- 
fied, laymen  were  introduced  into  their  Conferences, 
and  connection  with  slavery  or  secret  societies  was 
prohibited.     The   Church  began  with   about   6,000 

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members,  which  increased  in  less  than  two  years 
to  15,000;  but  after  slavery  was  abolished  thou- 
sands of  its  members  returned  to  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church. 

The  '"bisection"  of  the  Church  occurred  in  1844 
and  was  occasioned  by  the  case  of  James  O.  An- 
drew, a  Southern  bishop  who  had  become  by  mar- 
riage and  inheritance  a  slaveholder.  The  General 
Conference  of  that  year  passed  a  resolution  request- 
ing Bishop  Andrew  to  "desist  from  the  exercise  of 
his  office  so  long  as  this  impediment  remains."  The 
Southern  delegates  presented  a  protest  on  behalf  of 
''nearly  5,000  ministers  and  a  membership  of  nearly 
500,000  constitutionally  represented"  in  the  Con- 
ference. A  plan  of  separation  was  adopted,  and 
after  the  adjournment  of  the  General  Conference  the 
Southern  delegates  met  and  decided  to  hold  the 
matter  of  a  separate  organization  in  abeyance  until 
a  convention  of  representatives  of  all  the  Southern 
Conferences  could  be  held.  A  convention  was 
called,  which  met  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  May,  1845. 
At  this  meeting  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South,  began  its  existence  as  a  separate  body. 

The  two  Churches,  which  are  "sister  Churches 
of  equal  age  and  honor,"  have  continued  as  separate 
bodies,  though  there  is  a  growing  fraternalism  be- 
tween them,  and  tentative  efforts  have  been  made 
back  and  forth  looking  to  reunion.  The  proposals 
for  reunion  also  embrace  the  Methodist  Protestant 
Church.  The  Church,  South,  has  made  more  liberal 
provisions  for  laymen  in  its  councils  than  the  North- 
ern Church  and  has  abolished  the  probationary  fea- 
ture of  Church  membership,   still   retained  by  the 

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other.  But  it  retains  the  time  hmit  on  pastors  and 
exchides  women  as  delegated  representatives  in  the 
Conferences,  differing  in  both  points  from  the 
Church,  North.  In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
Conferences  having  both  white  and  colored  mem- 
bers are  allowed  to  be  divided  on  race  lines  "when 
it  shall  be  requested  by  a  majority  of  the  white  and 
also  a  majority  of  the  colored  members,  but  in  no 
case  when  it  is  not  clearly  to  be  seen  that  such  di- 
vision would  improve  the  work." 

At  the  Christmas  Conference  in  1784  three  elders 
were  ordained  for  missionary  work,  two  of  them  for 
Nova  Scotia  and  one  for  Antigua,  West  Indies.  At 
this  Conference  also  Thomas  Coke,  who  was  deeply 
imbued  with  the  missionary  spirit,  raised  what  was 
perhaps  the  first  missionary  collection  in  this  coun- 
try, amounting  to  $150.  Coke,  by  his  tireless  in- 
terest in  foreign  missions  and  by  his  own  many 
voyages  and  sacrifices  in  the  interest  of  the  cause, 
left  a  permanent  impression  upon  both  English  and 
American  Methodism.  In  1813  he  set  out  for  In- 
dia to  establish  a  mission  there,  but  died  and  was 
buried  at  sea.  Methodist  foreign  missions  had  been 
carried  on  for  a  generation,  and  there  were  upward 
of  one  himdred  missionaries  in  the  field  before  a 
missionary  society  was  ever  formed.  The  Bible 
and  Missionary  Society  was  founded  in  1819, 
changed  to  the  Missionary  Society  in  1820,  and  con- 
tinued so  until  1907,  when  it  was  succeeded  by  the 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church.  The  operations  of  this  Board  ex- 
tend  to   Africa,    China,   Japan.    Korea,    India,    and 

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Malaysia,  as  well  as  to  South  America,  Italy,  Mexi- 
co, France,  the  Philippines,  Madeira,  Bulgaria,  and 
Russia.  The  disbursements  for  foreign  missions, 
exclusive  of  woman's  work,  amounted  in  1913  to 
$1,441,602.  The  Board  of  Home  Missions  and 
Church  Extension  assists  in  the  support  of  four 
thousand  preachers,  operates  in  twenty  colored 
Conferences,  and  helps  to  preach  the  gospel  in 
twenty-five  languages  and  dialects  among  foreign- 
ers. The  Board  has  assisted  in  the  erection  of 
sixteen  thousand  Methodist  churches.  Its  head- 
quarters are  at  Philadelphia.  There  are  also  wom- 
en's foreign  and  home  mission  societies. 

The  Christmas  Conference  of  1784  also  con- 
sidered the  ^'project  of  a  college."  The  first  ven- 
ture was  Cokesbury  College,  near  Baltimore,  opened 
in  1787,  destroyed  by  fire  in  1797,  and  never  rebuilt. 
Bethel  Academy,  founded  near  Lexington,  Ky.,  in 
1794,  continues  to  exist,  but  after  1805  ceased  to  be 
a  strictly  Methodist  school.  Alleghany  College, 
Meadville,  Pa.,  was  founded  in  1815-17;  Ohio  Wes- 
leyan  University  was  opened  in  1831.  Other  lead- 
ing institutions  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
are :  Baker  University,  Baldwin,  Kans.  X1858)  ;  Bos- 
ton University,  Boston,  Mass.  (1869);  DePauw 
University,  Greencastle,  Ind.  (1897)  ;  Syracuse  Uni- 
versity, Syracuse,  N.  Y.  (1870)  ;  University  of  Den- 
ver (1864)  ;  Clark  University,  Atlanta,  and  Univer- 
sity of  Chattanooga,  in  the  South;  and  Northwest- 
ern University,  Evanston,  111.  (1851),  the  greatest 
university  in  Methodism.  Drew  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Madison,  N.  J.,  Garrett  Biblical  Institute, 
Evanston,   111.,   and    Boston   University   School   of 

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Theology  are  the  leading  theological  institutions. 
The  latest  and  one  of  the  largest  educational  proj- 
ects of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is  the 
American  University,  at  Washington,  a  post- 
graduate school,  founded  in  1890.  It  was  formally 
opened  in  1914.  It  has  assets  valued  at  more  than 
v$3 ,000,000.  The  Church  owns,  all  told,  sixty-seven 
colleges  and  universities,  nearly  fifty  secondary 
schools,  eleven  theological  schools,  fourteen  hos- 
pitals, and  about  the  same  number  of  orphanages 
and  child  welfare  institutions. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  held  its 
first  General  Conference  at  Petersburg,  Va.,  in  May, 
1846.  It  began  its  separate  existence  with  1,519 
traveling  preachers,  2,833  local  preachers,  327,284 
white  members,  124,961  colored  members,  and  2,972 
Indian  members.  A  missionary  society  was  organ- 
ized and  a  mission  in  China  projected.  The  Church 
increased  rapidly  in  membership  until  the  time  of 
the  war.  At  the  General  Conference  which  met  in 
New  Orleans  in  1866,  the  first  held  since  1858,  the 
statistics  showed  a  loss  in  membership  of  246,044. 
"The  Missionary  Society  of  the  Church  was  $60,000 
in  debt  and  the  Publishing  House  practically  in 
ruins.  Of  the  207,766  colored  members  in  i860  in 
the  Southern  body,  there  remained  at  the  close  of 
the  war  only  48,742."  But  "the  reconstructive 
spirit  of  this  Conference  and  the  statesmanship 
manifested  .  .  .  were  a  prophecy  that  the  ravages 
of  the  war  would  soon  be  repaired."  At  this  Con- 
ference the  colored  membership  of  the  Church  was 
set  off  into  colored   Conferences,  and   these  were, 

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by  mutual  consent,  organized  into  the  Colored 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1870. 

The  Missionary  Society  formed  at  the  first  Gen- 
eral Conference  was  divided  into  Foreign  and  Do- 
mestic Boards  in  1866;  but  in  1870  these  were 
merged  into  the  Board  of  Missions  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  South,  which  administers  both 
home  and  foreign  work.  The  Board  sustains  mis- 
sions in  China,  Korea,  Japan,  Brazil,  Mexico,  Cuba, 
and  Africa.  The  income  for  foreign  missions  for 
1913,  including  woman's  work,  amounted  to  $837,- 
760  and  for  home  work  $341,279.  The  headquarters 
of  the  Board  are  at  Nashville,  Tenn.  There  is  a  sep- 
arate Church  Extension  Board,  located  at  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  which  has  assisted  in  the  erection  of 
8,692  churches  and  2,261  parsonages  since  its  or- 
ganization. 

Vanderbilt  University,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  founded 
in  1872,  one  of  the  leading  educational  institutions 
in  the  country,  was  until  recently  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South.  By 
a  court  decision  in  1914  that  Church  was  virtually 
deprived  of  control  of  the  Institution.  The  General 
Conference  of  May,  1914,  authorized  the  founding 
of  a  university,  and  an  institution  of  that  class, 
with  liberal  financial  backing,  has  been  established 
in  Atlanta,  Ga.  Southern  Methodist  University, 
Dallas,  Tex.,  launched  by  the  Texas  Conferences 
and  adopted  by  the  General  Conference  as  the  uni- 
versity of  the  Church  west  of  the  Mississippi,  Is  In 
process  of  building.  Southv/estern  University, 
Georgetown,  Tex.,  Central  College,  Fayette,  Mo., 
Mlllsaps  College,  Jackson,   Miss.,  Trinity  College, 

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Durham,  N.  C,  and  the  Randolph-Macon  Colleges, 
in  Virginia,  are  among  the  leading  colleges.  The 
Church  has  twenty-six  higher  institutions  and  a 
large  number  of  secondary  schools,  five  hospitals, 
and  twelve  orphanages. 

The  foundation  doctrines  of  Methodism  are  those 
commonly  held  by  all  evangelical  Churches.  But 
in  Wesley's  time  "certain  doctrines  of  the  New 
Testament  were  neglected  by  the  clergy  and  the 
Churches  and  robbed  of  their  true  proportion  and 
emphasis,  and  these  doctrines,  which  he  considered 
vital  to  the  spread  of  a  pure  Christianity,  he  ex- 
pounded, preached,  and  published."  The  peculiar 
doctrines  of  Methodism,  therefore,  have  been  from 
the  beginning  of  its  history  those  preached  and  ex- 
pounded by  John  Wesley.  These  are  found  in 
Wesley's  Notes  on  the  New  Testament  and  in  his 
published  sermons.  In  American  Methodism  these 
standards  are  supplemented  by  the  Twenty-Five 
Articles  of  Religion  which  Wesley  abridged  from 
the  English  articles.  But  Wesley's  work  was  not 
so  much  creed-building  as  preaching,  with  the  one 
thing  of  salvation  of  souls  In  view.  And  In  this  the 
Church  which  he  founded  has  retained  his  spirit 
and  purpose.  The  emphasis  placed  on  preaching 
goes  far  to  explain  the  success  of  the  Methodist 
movement.  "At  a  time  when  the  prevailing  type  of 
Christianity  was  Calvlnlstic  the  Methodists  came 
with  the  gospel  of  a  free,  full,  and  present  salva- 
tion, which  they  preached  with  tremendous  earnest- 
ness and  without  philosophical  refinements." 

The  ten  propositions  of  Bishop  John  H.  Vincent 

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express  in  an  admirable  manner  the  beliefs  of  Meth- 
odists.   They  are  as  follows  :* 

1.  I  believe  that  all  men  are  sinners. 

2.  I  believe  that  God  the  Father  loves  all  men  and  hates  all 
sin. 

3.  I  believe  that  Jesus  Christ  died  for  all  men,  to  make 
possible  their  salvation  from  sin  and  to  make  sure  the  salva- 
tion of  all  who  believe  in  him. 

4.  I  believe  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  given  to  all  men  to 
enlighten  and  to  incline  them  to  repent  of  their  sins  and  to 
believe  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

5.  I  believe  that  all  w^ho  repent  of  their  sins  and  believe  in 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  receive  the  forgiveness  of  sins.  This 
is  justification. 

6.  I  believe  that  all  who  receive  the  forgiveness  of  sins  are 
at  the  same  time  made  new  creatures  in  Christ  Jesus.  This  is 
regeneration. 

7.  I  believe  that  all  who  are  made  new  creatures  in  Christ 
Jesus  are  accepted  as  children  of  God.    This  is  adoption. 

8.  I  believe  that  all  who  are  accepted  as  the  children  of  God 
may  receive  the  inward  assurance  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  that 
fact.    This  is  the  witness  of  the  Spirit. 

9.  I  believe  that  all  who  truly  desire  and  seek  it  may  love 
God  with  all  the  heart,  soul,  mind,  and  strength,  and  their 
neighbors  as  themselves.    This  is  entire  sanctification. 

10.  I  believe  that  all  who  persevere  to  the  end,  and  only 
these,  shall  be  saved  in  heaven  forever. 

In  Episcopal  Methodism  the  General  Conference 
is  the  supreme  legislative,  judicial,  and  executive 
body,  with  certain  constitutional  restrictions.  It 
elects  the  heads  of  all  connectional  interests  of  the 
Church  and  the  bishops,  who  are  itinerant,  in  dis- 
tinction from  diocesan,  officers.  The  bishops, 
while  elected  for  life  and  intrusted  with  large 
powers,  have  their  characters  and  labors  reviewed 

*Quoted  from  Faulkner,  "The  Methodists." 
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by  each  General  Conference,  and  they  may  be  tried 
and  expelled  for  cause.  They  are  empowered  to 
preside  in  Annual  Conferences,  ordain  the  preach- 
ers, and  appoint  them  to  their  charges  in  consulta- 
tion with  the  presiding  elders.  The  territory  of  the 
Church  is  divided  into  Annual  Conferences  and 
these  into  districts,  over  which  are  presiding  elders 
(called  district  superintendents  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church),  and  each  district  holds  annually 
a  District  Conference.  There  are  also  Quarterly 
Conferences,  held  by  presiding  elders,  for  each  pas- 
toral charge,  and  Church  Conferences,  held  by  the 
pastor,  in  each  local  Church. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  bodies  have  a  system 
of  reporting  statistics  which  insures  completeness 
and  accuracy.  But  their  reports  are  by  Conferences 
and  not  by  States.  In  States  where  Conference 
boundaries  do  not  cross  State  lines  it  is  possible  to 
show  the  membership  within  the  State  by  using  or 
combining  the  Conference  returns.  For  purposes 
of  comparison  this  is  done  where  possible  in  the  fol- 
lowing tables.  The  figures  are  for  white  English- 
speaking  Conferences  and  are  those  of  1914  except 
where  indicated: 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

Arkansas    6,459      Kansas    136,415 

Arizona    2,822       Kentucky   23,933 

Colorado    33,307       Maine    12,568 

Florida*    2,815      Michigan    125,570 

Georgia    (1913) 3,764      Minnesota    46,110 

Illinois    257,489       Missouri    75,389 

Indiana    242,046      Montana    10,240 

Iowa    170,407      Nebraska   68,570 

*Except  western  extremity. 
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New   Hampshire 15,085  Utah    1,640 

New   Mexico    2,727  Vermont    12,599 

North  Dakota 1 1,460  Wisconsin    52,426 

Ohio    393,746 

The  Alabama  Conference,  embracing  Alabama 
and  North  Mississippi,  reports  11,809  members;  the 
Oklahoma,  embracing  Oklahoma  and  the  larger  part 
of  Texas,  39,336;  the  Gulf,  embracing  Louisiana, 
South  Mississippi,  and  East  Texas,  5,756;  the  Blue 
Ridge  and  Atlantic,  embracing  North  Carolina  and 
a  portion  of  South  Carolina,  11,223;  the  Confer- 
ences embraced  within  the  States  of  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania,  including  a  portion  of  Connecticut, 
have  705,006  members. 

The  total  membership  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  In  the  United  States  Is  3,603,265,  a  gain  of 
187,497  for  1914.  There  are  18,881  active  Itinerant 
ministers  and  28,245  churches. 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South. 

Alabama*     172,534  Montana 1,248 

Arkansas    104,455  North  Carolina   184,987 

Colorado    1,805  Oklahoma    59,039 

Floridat   35,88o  South  Carolina   98,347 

Georgia    213,498  Texast   292,446 

Louisiana  36,450 

The  Conferences  of  Missouri,  embracing  also 
Eastern  Kansas,  have  a  membership  of  123,416; 
those  of  Tennessee,  embracing  also  a  small  portion 
of  Southwestern  Kentucky  and  of  Virginia  and 
West  Virginia,  have  228,949  members. 

*lncluding  western  extremity  of  Florida. 
tExcept  western  extremity. 

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The  total  membership  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  is  2,033,707,  with  a  gain  of  36,132 
in  1914.  There  are  7,099  ministers  and  16,691 
churches. 

Methodist  Protestant  Church:  Ministers,  1,371; 
churches,  2,348;  members,  180,382.  The  last  re- 
ports show  a  loss  in  membership.  The  Church  is 
strongest  in  the  States  of  Ohio,  West  Virginia, 
Maryland,  and  North  Carolina. 

Wesleyan  Methodist:  Membership,  19,500. 

Congregational  Methodist,  organized  in  Georgia 
in  1852  by  ministers  and  members  withdrawing 
from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  on 
account  of  dissatisfaction  with  certain  features  of 
Church  polity:  Membership,  15,529. 

New  Congregational  Methodist  (originated  in 
Georgia  in  1881)  :  Report  for  1906,  1,782  members. 

Primitive  Methodist  (a  branch  of  the  Primitive 
Methodist  Church  of  England,  strongest  in  Penn- 
sylvania) :  Membership,  8,210. 

Free  Methodist :  Organized  in  New  York  in  i860 
by  ministers  and  members  who  had  been  expelled 
or  had  withdrawn  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  on  account  of  differences  concerning  mem- 
bership in  secret  societies  and  doctrinal  questions. 
The  new  Church  took  the  position  that  sanctifica- 
tion  is  instantaneous  and  subsequent  to  regenera- 
tion. The  Church  is  strongest  in  New  York,  Illi- 
nois, and  Iowa.    Membership,  33,828. 

Reformed  Methodist  Union  Episcopal :  Member- 
ship, 4,000. 

Union  American  Methodist  Episcopal  (a  colored 
body)  :  Membership,  19,000. 

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African  Methodist  Episcopal  (Colored,  North)  : 
Membership,  620,000. 

African  Union  Methodist  Protestant  (colored)  : 
Membership,  4,000. 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  (Colored, 
North)  :  Alembership,  568,000. 

Zion  Union  Apostolic :  Membership  in  1906,  3,059. 

Colored  Methodist  Episcopal,  South :  Member- 
ship, 240,798. 

Independent  Methodist  Churches:  Membership, 
1,161. 

Total  Methodists  in  the  United  States,  7,328,829. 

The  Methodist  membership  of  the  world  is  re- 
ported (1914)  at  9,228,385.     (Methodist  Yearbook.) 


MILLENNIAL  DAWNISTS,  OR  RUS- 
SELLITES. 

A  NAME  somewhat  generally  applied  to  the  fol- 
low^ers  of  Charles  T.  Russell  or  to  those  who  accept 
his  theories.  In  1866  appeared  the  first  volume  of 
a  series  of  religious  books  by  Russell,  the  whole 
series  bearing  the  title  of  "Millennial  Dawn."  The 
books  treat  of  the  second  coming  of  Christ,  man's 
redemption  and  restitution,  and  the  millennial  reign 
of  Christ  on  earth.  The  title  of  the  books  has  been 
changed  to  "Studies  in  the  Scriptures,"  and  all  the 
literature  issued  by  the  movement  bears  titles  cal- 
culated "to  allay  suspicion  and  to  commend  the 
propaganda  of  Mr.  Russell  and  his  followers  to  the 
Christian  public,"  as  "People's  Pulpit  of  Brooklyn," 
"International  Bible  Students'  League,"  "Brooklyn 

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Tabernacle,"  and  "Bible  House  and  Tract  Society." 
The  works  of  Russell  have  been  translated  into 
many  languages,  and  an  enormous  circulation  is 
claimed  for  them. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  doctrines  of 
the  Millennial  Dawnists  (from  "Millennial  Dawn : 
A  Counterfeit  of  Christianity,"  by  Prof.  William  G. 
Morehead,  D,D.,  in  the  Fundamentals)  : 

1.  Christ  before  his  advent  was  not  divine. 

2.  When  he  was  in  the  world  he  was  still  not  divine. 

3.  His  atonement  was  exclusively  human,  a  mere  man's. 

4.  Since  his  resurrection  he  is  divine  only,  no  longer  human 
at  all. 

5.  His  body  was  not  raised  from  the  dead. 

6.  His  second  advent  took  place  in  1874. 

7.  The  saints  were  raised  up  in  1878. 

8.  Both  Christ  and  the  saints  are  now  on  earth  and  have 
been  since  the  above  dates. 

9.  The  professing  Christian  Church  was  rejected  of  God  in 
1878. 

10.  The  final  consummation  and  end  will  take  place  in  1914. 

11.  There  is  silence  as  to  the  person  and  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit. 

12.  As  to  the  destiny  of  the  wicked.  (The  finally  impenitent 
to  be  annihilated.) 

Referring  to  the  disposition  of  Christ's  body  at 
the  resurrection,  ''Millennial  Dawn"  is  quoted  as 
follows :  "Our  Lord's  human  body  was  supernat- 
urally  removed  from  the  tomb ;  because  had  it  re- 
mained there,  it  would  have  been  an  insurmountable 
obstacle  to  the  faith  of  the  disciples.  .  .  .  We 
know  nothing  about  what  became  of  it,  except  that 
it  did  not  decay  or  corrupt.  Whether  it  was  dis- 
solved   into    gases    or   whether    it    is    still    preserved 

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somewhere,  ...  no  one  knows ;  nor  is  such 
knowledge  necessary." 

Concerning  the  final  consummation  of  the  age, 
October,  1914,  was  fixed  by  Russell  as  terminating 
absolutely  the  present  order  of  things.  "Dozens  of 
times  the  writer  of  these  books  sets  it  down  as  posi- 
tive and  unalterable.  .  .  .  It  is  then  that  the 
millennium,  so  long  expected  and  so  long  yearned 
after,  finally  comes,  and  the  planet  celebrates  its 
glad,  Its  unending  jubilee." 

Says  Professor  Morehead,  referring  to  Russell's 
teaching  on  the  destiny  of  the  wicked :  "The  gro- 
tesque subject  of  one  of  his  most  popular  lectures, 
a  lecture  he  has  delivered  throughout  our  country, 
in  Canada,  and  also  in  England,  and  published  in  a 
vast  number  of  papers  and  periodicals,  is  'To  Hell 
and  Back  Again.'  Crowds  have  listened  with  no 
httle  satisfaction  to  his  assertions  that  there  is  no 
hell,  no  eternal  punishment,  and  no  hopelessness 
after  death.  He  holds  that  in  the  resurrection, 
which  is  to  include  both  the  righteous  and  the 
wicked,  the  gospel  of  salvation  shall  be  preached 
to  all  who  did  not  receive  it,  though  having  heard, 
while  in  this  life  and  to  those  who  never  had  an 
opportunity  while  in  the  earthly  life  to  hear  and 
believe.  For  one  hundred  years  the  preaching  to 
these  classes  shall  continue,  and  the  great  mass  of 
them  will  believe  and  enter  into  eternal  life.  Those 
who  persistently  refuse  the  offer  of  salvation  and 
reject  the  Lord's  mercy  will  be  annihilated ;  an  act 
of  divine  power  will  blot  them  out  of  existence  for- 
ever." 

It  is  estimated  that  about  fifty  thousand  persons 
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(two-thirds  of  whom  are  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada)  take  an  active  interest  in  the  study  of 
''Millennial  Dawn."  **They  are  organized  as  bands 
of  Bible  students  and  disclaim  any  distinctive  name. 
Each  band  elects  an  elder  or  elders,  making  selec- 
tion 'by  the  stretching  out  of  the  hand/  a  Scriptural 
method  misunderstood,  it  is  claimed,  to  have  been 
'laying  on  of  hands.'  Pastor  Russell,  as  he  prefers 
to  be  called,  superintends  the  promulgation  of 
their  literature.  .  .  .  Interested  friends  of  the 
movement  contribute  'volunteer'  workers  and  dis- 
tribute the  pamphlets  from  house  to  house,  and 
colporteurs  give  their  time  entirely  to  the  circula- 
tion of  'Millennial  Dawn.'  "* 


MORAVIANS  (UNITAS  FRATREM). 

The  Moravians  trace  their  history  back  to  John 
Huss,  the  Bohemian  reformer,  who  was  burned  as  a 
heretic  at  the  Council  of  Constance  in  141 5.  The 
followers  of  Huss,  known  as  Hussites,  were  divided 
into  three  branches,  two  of  which  made  peace  with 
the  Roman  Church  and  reentered  that  communion. 
The  third  held  out  as  an  independent  body,  coming 
to  be  called  the  Bohemian  Brethren.  They  were 
relentlessly  persecuted  and  scattered,  but  the  rem- 
nant at  length  found  an  asylum  under  the  protec- 
tion of  Count  Zinzendorf  In  Saxony.  They  founded 
the  town  of  Herrnhut,  which  remains  the  Moravian 
center  In  Europe. 

*New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia,  article  "Millennial 
Dawn.'* 

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Zinzendorf  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  reor- 
ganized Moravian  Church,  or  Unitas  Fratrem 
(Unity  of  the  Brethren).  He  was  ordained  bishop 
of  the  Moravians  without,  however,  severing  his 
relation  with  the  Lutheran  Church,  of  which  he  had 
been  ordained  a  minister.  Under  Zinzendorf's  in- 
fluence the  Moravian  colony,  by  separation  from  the 
world  and  diligent  use  of  spiritual  exercises,  became 
a  deeply  religious  society.  But  the  society  de- 
veloped without  any  purpose  of  separation  from  the 
State  Church  or  of  denominational  expansion,  being 
similar  in  this  particular  to  the  rise  of  the  Meth- 
odist societies  in  the  Church  of  England.  And  the 
Wesleyan  movement  in  England  was  indebted  in 
many  respects  to  the  Moravians,  as  John  Wesley 
was  deeply  impressed  on  many  occasions  with  the 
Moravian  doctrines  and  life,  and  after  his  conver- 
sion he  visited  Herrnhut  and  studied  the  system  of 
this  colony. 

The  Moravians  established  other  communities  on 
the  Continent,  in  England,  and  America,  sent  out 
missionaries  to  the  heathen,  and  founded  schools 
for  the  benefit  of  those  not  members  of  the  society. 
A  characteristic  feature  of  early  Moravian  history 
was  its  inner  mission  work,  or  Diaspora,  in  which 
they  sought  to  convert  individual  members  of  the 
State  Church  without  drawing  them  from  that  com- 
munion. 

The  Moravian  Church  was  planted  in  America 
by  immigrants  who  landed  in  Georgia  in  1735.  Five 
years  later  this  company  removed  to  Pennsylvania, 
where  the  towns  of  Bethlehem  and  Nazareth  were 
founded.      A    form    of    communism    was    adopted, 

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which,  after  twenty  years,  was  abohshed.  These 
colonists  were  active  in  missionary  labors  among 
the  Indians  in  their  own  and  neighboring  States. 

The  Moravian  Brethren  were  the  first  Protestants 
to  send  missionaries  to  the  heathen,  and  they  have 
been  noted  for  their  missionary  labors,  particularly 
in  hard  and  neglected  fields.  They  planted  a  mis- 
sion in  Greenland  in  1733  and  in  1900  transferred 
this  mission  to  the  Danish  Lutheran  Church,  ''there 
being  no  more  professed  heathen  in  this  region." 
They  maintain  missions  in  Alaska  and  Labrador, 
among  the  Indians  of  North  America,  the  negroes 
of  the  West  Indies,  in  Nicaragua,  British  and  Dutch 
Guiana,  Cape  Colony,  German  East  Africa,  Aus- 
tralia, and  among  the  Tibetan  people  of  Asia. 
They  have  a  leper  home  near  Jerusalem.  Besides 
their  missionary  operations,  the  Moravians  are  for- 
ward in  education,  maintaining  thirty-three  schools, 
colleges,  and  seminaries. 

The  Moravian  Church  is  divided  into  four  prov- 
inces for  governmental  purposes — the  German, 
British,  and  the  provinces  in  North  and  South 
America.  The  local  affairs  of  each  province  are 
administered  by  a  synod.  The  synod  elects  the 
executive  board,  which  is  composed  of  bishops  and 
other  ministers,  and  this  board  appoints  the  minis- 
ters to  the  various  congregations.  Every  ten  years 
a  general  synod  convenes,  composed  of  representa- 
tives  from  all  the  provinces  and  missions. 

In  doctrine  the  Moravians  believe  in  the  total  de- 
"pravity  of  human  nature.  They  emphasize  the  love 
of  God,  the  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ,  justification  by 
iaith  pnty,  the  person  and  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 

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the  fellowship  of  believers,  and  the  second  coming 
of  Christ.  There  are  three  orders  of  ministers — 
bishops,  presb3^ters,  and  deacons.  In  worship  they 
observe  ritualistic  forms.  The  Church  maintains  a 
strict  discipline  among  its  members. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  (1914)  147  minis- 
ters, 143  churches,  and  20,615  members.  In  a  small 
body  known  as  the  Union  Bohemians  and  Mo- 
ravians there  are  about  one  thousand  members. 
The  Moravians  have  in  the  world,  including  mem- 
bership in  missions,  88  ministers,  or,  including  na- 
tive helpers,  3,037  and  146,601  members.  This  does 
not  include  about  75,000  ''society  members,"  or 
members  in  the  Diaspora  societies. 


PENTECOSTAL  CHURCH  OF  THE 
NAZARENE. 

This  body  resulted  from  a  union  formed  at  Chi- 
cago, 111.,  in  October,  1907,  of  several  Pentecostal, 
or  Holiness,  associations  in  the  Eastern  States  and 
the  Church  of  the  Nazarene,  another  Holiness  body, 
of  California.  In  1908  the  Holiness  Church  of 
Christ,  an  organization  of  Holiness  societies  in  the 
Southwest,  went  into  the  union.  The  membership 
of  the  associations  forming  the  union  had  been 
drawn  mainly  from  Methodist  bodies,  and  the  new 
Church  shows  a  doctrinal  kinship  to  the  Methodists. 
Emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  depravity  of  the  race, 
the  doctrine  of  entire  sanctification  as  a  work  of 
grace  subsequent  to  regeneration,  and  the  second 
coming  of  Christ.     The  Church  opposes  the  use  of 

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alcoholic  drinks  and  tobacco  and  membership  in 
secret  societies. 

The  Church  has  grown  rapidly  since  the  union 
was  accomplished,  having  when  the  union  was  com- 
pleted, in  1908,  575  ministers,  230  churches,  and 
12,000  members,  and  in  1914  687  ministers,  708 
churches,  and  27,526  members.  It  has  missions  in 
several  foreign  countries  and  is  very  active  in  evan- 
gelistic work  in  the  home  land.  It  has  colleges  in 
Rhode  Island,  California,  and  Texas. 

The  general  assembly  and  district  assemblies  are 
the  connectional  bodies  of  the  Church.  The  general 
assembly  elects  "general  superintendents,"  who  pre- 
side in  the  assemblies,  arrange  assembly  districts, 
ordain  elders,  appoint  evangelists,  and  have  general 
supervision  of  the  work  of  the  Church.  Pastors  are 
not  appointed  to  their  charges,  but  are  elected  or 
**called"  by  local  Church  boards. 


PRESBYTERIANS. 

The  term  Presbyterian,  or  Presbyterianism, 
strictly  applied,  refers  only  to  a  form  of  Church 
government  and  is  not  properly  applicable  to  a  sys- 
tem of  doctrine  or  to  forms  of  worship.  The  doc- 
trinal system  known  as  Calvinism,  while  usually  as- 
sociated with  Presbyterianism,  is  held  by  many 
Churches  not  Presbyterian  in  government ;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  are  Presbyterian  bodies  that 
profess  other  doctrines  than  Calvinism.  The  Pres- 
byterian Alliance,  or  Alliance  of  Reformed  Churches 
throughout   the   V/orld   Holding   the    Presbyterian 

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System,  expresses  the  common  basis  of  fellowship 
among  these  Churches.  The  Alliance  embraces 
more  than  ninety  organizations,  having  about  25,- 
000,000  adherents. 

John  Calvin  (1509-64),  the  Geneva  reformer,  was 
the  founder  of  the  Presbyterian  system,  and  his 
teachings  form  the  basis  of  the  doctrinal  standards 
of  nearly  all  Presbyterian  bodies.  Calvin  never 
founded  a  distinct  denomination,  but  he  expounded 
and  put  into  practice  the  principles  which  in  other 
countries  and  in  other  hands  developed  into  the 
Presbyterian  denominations.  Calvin's  influence  was 
extended  by  the  wide  circulation  of  his  writings 
and  by  a  large  number  of  preachers  and  reformers 
who  visited  Geneva  from  other  lands. 

A  noted  visitor  to  Geneva  was  John  Knox,  of 
Scotland,  who  had  previously  embraced  the  evan- 
gelical doctrines.  Knox  spent  eighteen  months  at 
Geneva,  while  an  exile  from  his  native  land,  and 
became  a  close  friend  and  disciple  of  Calvin.  Upon 
his  return  to  Scotland  (1555)  Knox  stirred  the 
nobles  and  gentry  by  his  fiery  preaching,  and  as  a 
result  they  united  in  1557  in  the  first  covenant,  re- 
nouncing "the  congregation  of  Satan,  with  all  super- 
stitions, abominations,  and  idolatries  thereof,"  and 
engaging  to  defend  the  Protestant  faith.  Three 
years  later  the  Scotch  Parliament  abolished  the 
Roman  Catholic  system  and  filled  the  places  of  the 
Roman  clergy  with  Protestant  ministers.  Parlia- 
ment also  adopted  a  Confession  of  Faith,  which  was 
chiefly  the  work  of  John  Knox  and  Calvinistic  in 
theology.  In  the  same  year  the  first  General  As- 
sembly met,  which  adopted  a  book  of   Discipline. 

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This  also  reflects  the  influence  of  Knox;  and  while 
"it  shows  the  effect  of  Knox's  stay  in  Geneva,  it 
likewise  shows  that  Knox  had  a  mind  of  his  own," 
as  the  Genevan  discipline  was  much  altered.  But 
in  1578  this  book  of  Discipline  was  displaced  by 
another,  which  "embodied  the  purest  type  of  Pres- 
byterianism  which  had  yet  been  set  forth  in  the 
formularies  of  any  of  the  Reformed  Churches."  In 
the  final  establishment  of  Presbyterianism  a  long 
conflict  was  waged  with  royalty  and  the  advocates 
of  episcopacy,  in  which  the  name  of  Andrew  Mel- 
ville appears  as  the  leading  champion  of  Presby- 
terianism, and  to  him  also  is  ascribed  the  author- 
ship of  the  second  book  of  Discipline.  In  1592  Par- 
liament passed  an  act  making  Presbyterianism  the 
national  religion  of  Scotland.  But  it  was  not  until 
nearly  a  century  later  (1690)  that  the  Presbyterian, 
as  opposed  to  the  Episcopal,  form  of  government 
gained  the  field.  In  that  year  the  Presbyterian 
Church  was  again  established  by  law  on  the  basis 
of  the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  (which  had 
displaced  earlier  confessions  in  1647)  ^^^  ^^e  Pres- 
byterian polity  "as  administered  by  general  assem- 
blies, synods,  presbyteries,  and  kirk  sessions." 

Presbyterianism  in  Scotland  at  the  present  time 
is  represented  not  only  by  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
but  by  other  bodies  which  have  withdrawn  from 
the  Established  Church.  The  United  Presbyterian 
Church  resulted  from  a  union  in  1847  of  several 
small  bodies  which  had  separated  from  the  State 
Church.  The  Free  Church  of  Scotland  originated 
in  consequence  of  a  collision  between  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  powers,  "the  civil  courts  claiming  not 

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only  the  right  to  control  the  temporalities  of  the 
Church,  but  also  the  power  to  rule  in  spiritual  af- 
fairs." The  separation  occurred  in  1843.  The 
United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  is  a  result  of  the 
union  of  the  two  above-named  independent  bodies, 
consummated  in  1900.  A  small  number  of  minis- 
ters and  elders  opposed  the  union  and  voted  to  con- 
tinue the  Free  Church. 

The  comparative  strength  of  the  two  leading 
bodies  in  Scotland  is  shown  by  the  following  fig- 
ures: 

Church  of  Scotland. 

Communicants    702,075 

Sunday  school  scholars 235,974 

United  Free  Church. 

Communicants    506,088 

Sunday  school  scholars 241,160 

Presbyterianism  in  England  grew  out  of  the  Puri- 
tan movement.  Many  of  the  Puritan  leaders,  to  es- 
cape persecution,  had  spent  some  time  on  the  Con- 
tinent, where  they  had  come  in  contact  with  Calvin 
and  the  Swiss  reformers.  The  efforts  of  the  Puritan 
party  under  this  influence,  from  being  originally 
mainly  spent  in  protest  against  "popery,"  came  to 
be  more  and  more  directed  toward  shaping  the 
English  Church  after  the  Presbyterian  model.  The 
high-water  mark  of  this  movement  was  reached 
during  the  period  of  1640-48.  The  Long  Parlia- 
ment, which  assembled  in  1640,  was  dominated  by 
Presbyterian  sentiment,  and  it  set  itself  immediately 
to  consider  the  question  of  Church  reform.  In  1641 
it  passed  the  famous  remonstrance  in  which  it  was 

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proposed  that,  "in  order  the  better  to  effect  the 
reformation  in  the  Church,  there  should  be  a  gen- 
eral synod  of  grave,  pious,  learned,  and  judicious 
divines  who  should  consider  all  things  necessary 
for  the  peace  and  good  government  of  the  Church." 
The  Westminster  Assembly  was  the  outcome  of 
this  proposal.  It  convened  in  July,  1643,  ^^^  ^at 
until  early  in  1649,  during  which  period  it  met  1,163 
times.  The  Assembly  formulated  a  Confession  of 
Faith — the  Westminster  Confession — the  Form  of 
Church  Government,  the  Directory  for  Worship, 
and  the  Larger  and  Shorter  Catechism.  The  acts 
of  the  Assembly  were  approved  by  Parliament,  and 
by  an  ordinance  of  that  body  passed  in  1647  Pres- 
byterianism  was  made  the  established  religion  of 
England.  This  ordinance,  hov/ever,  was  never  put 
into  general  effect,  and  the  Westminster  Confes- 
sion, while  adopted  by  the  Church  of  Scotland,  ob- 
tained only  a  limited  recognition  in  England.  When 
Cromwell  came  into  power  he  threw  his  influence 
against  Presbyterianism,  and  its  disestablishment 
was  completed  with  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy 
(1660),  when  the  Anglican,  or  Episcopal,  party 
came  into  power.  As  a  result  of  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity (1662)  more  than  two  thousand  Presby- 
terian ministers  resigned  their  charges  or  were 
ejected  from  them,  and  thousands  of  members  were 
imprisoned  or  fined.  Though  all  dissenting  bodies 
were  later  given  a  legal  standing,  Presbyterianism 
never  reached  its  former  strength. 

In  1910  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  England  had 
85,775  communicants,  350  congregations,  12  Pres- 
bvteries,  which  meet  annually  in  a  General  Synod. 

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In  1910  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland  had 
106,000  members.  There  is  also  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church,  with  3,900  members,  besides 
a  small  body  known  as  the  Seceder  Church. 

The  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Connection,  or 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Wales,  which  is,  next  after 
the  Churches  in  Scotland,  the  largest  Presbyterian 
body  in  the  British  Isles,  arose  as  a  result  of  a  re- 
vival begun  in  Wales  during  the  time  of  the  Wes- 
leyan  revival  in  England.  The  Welsh  movement 
had  George  Whitefield  at  its  head  for  a  time,  and 
their  societies  were  for  many  years  associated  with 
the  Methodists  of  England.  The  Welsh  societies 
were  severed  from  the  Church  of  England  in  181 1. 
In  1907  this  body  had  185,935  members. 

There  were  Presbyterian  elements  in  the  first 
Puritan  settlers  of  New  England.  The  Churches  of 
these  early  colonies  were  not  purely  Congregational 
nor  purely  Presbyterian,  according  to  the  Presby- 
terian historian  Reed  ("History  of  the  Presbyterian 
Churches  of  the  World"),  but  represented  ''a  Con- 
gregationahzed  Presbyterianism  or  a  Presbyterian- 
ized  Congregationalism."  The  Presbyterian  ele- 
ments grew  stronger  with  the  coming  of  fresh 
colonists,  and  the  Churches  of  Connecticut  came  to 
be  known  as  Presbyterian.  But  in  the  end  the  Con- 
gregational elements  prevailed,  and  only  those 
Presbyterian  elements  that  drifted  south  and  west 
became  permanently  a  part  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church.  The  beginnings  of  organized  Presbyterian- 
ism were  outside  of  New  England  and  were  prob- 
ably made  by  Francis  Makemie,  an  Irish  mission- 

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ary  sent  out  by  the  Presbytery  of  Lagan  in  1681. 
He  is  called  the  ''Father  of  American  Presbyterian- 
ism."  Rehoboth  Church,  in  Maryland,  organized 
about  1684,  probably  by  Makemie,  claims  to  be  the 
first  of  American  Presbyterian  Churches,  though 
the  claim  is  contested.  Makemie  traversed  the 
country  from  Massachusetts  to  South  Carolina, 
ministering  to  a  scattered  population  and  meeting 
with  much  opposition  on  the  part  of  an  unfriendly 
government  and  much  persecution  at  the  hands  of 
the  Episcopal  Church,  which  had  been  established 
by  law  in  the  colonies  of  New  York,  Virginia,  and 
the  Carolinas.  In  response  to  Makemie's  appeal  he 
was  joined  by  two  dissenting  ministers  from  Lon- 
don, and  by  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  sev- 
eral congregations  had  been  formed  in  Virginia, 
Maryland,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  New 
York. 

The  first  Presbytery  was  organized  at  Philadel- 
phia in  1706  with  seven  ministers.  The  first  Synod 
was  formed  in  1716,  composed  of  four  Presbyteries, 
as  follows:  Philadelphia,  with  six  ministers  and 
churches ;  Newcastle,  six  ministers  and  churches ; 
Snow  Hill,  with  three  ministers  and  churches ;  and 
Long  Island,  with  two  ministers  and  several 
churches.  In  1729  the  Synod  adopted  the  West- 
minster Confession  as  a  doctrinal  standard.  Dif- 
ferences on  the  questions  of  revivals  and  ministerial 
education  were  accentuated  by  the  visit  of  George 
Whitefield  in  1739,  and  in  1741  a  division  into  two 
parties  occurred,  which  came  to  be  known  as  Old 
Side  and  New  Side.  The  Old  Sides  formed  the 
Synod  of  Philadelphia,  and  the  New  Sides,  or  re- 

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vival  advocates,  formed  the  Synod  of  New  York. 
It  was  during  the  period  of  division  that  the  New 
Sides  founded  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (1746), 
now  Princeton  University.  In  1758  the  bodies  re- 
united under  the  name  of  the  Synod  of  New  York 
and  Philadelphia.  The  reunited  body  had  ninety- 
eight  ministers  and  about  ten  thousand  members. 

During  the  Revolution  the  Presbyterians  stood 
boldly  and  actively  on  the  side  of  the  colonies. 
John  Witherspoon,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  the 
only  clerical  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. After  the  war  the  Synod  of  New  York  and 
Philadelphia  met  in  May,  1788,  and  resolved  itself 
into  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America.  The 
Westminster  Confession  and  Catechisms  were  re- 
adopted  ;  also  a  form  of  government,  a  book  of  Dis- 
ciphne,  and  Forms  of  Worship.  It  embraced  four 
Synods — namely,  the  New  York  and  New  Jersey, 
the  Philadelphia,  the  Virginia,  and  the  Carolina — 
representing  a  total  of  seventeen  Presbyteries,  419 
congregations,  180  ministers,  and  about  18,000  mem- 
bers. 

In  1801  a  plan  of  union  was  entered  into  with  the 
Congregational  Churches  of  New  England,  which 
still  had  a  considerable  Presbyterian  element,  by 
which  Presbyterian  ministers  might  serve  Congre- 
gational Churches  and  vice  versa  and  also  permitted 
the  organization  of  mixed  Churches.  Under  this 
plan  Congregationalists  going  West  or  South  usu- 
ally went  into  Presbyterian  Churches.  The  plan 
also  involved  joint  denominational  agencies  for 
missionary  work.    The  plan  of  union,  while  it  pro- 

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moted  the  growth  of  Presbyterianism  in  the  Middle 
West,  led  to  a  new  and  more  serious  division  of  the 
denomination.  Doctrinal  differences  entered  into 
the  division,  as  well  as  the  slavery  question  in  a 
minor  degree.  The  "Old  School"  wing  were  op- 
posed to  the  cooperative  plan  with  the  Congrega- 
tionalists,  and  they  resisted  what  they  regarded  as 
the  invasion  of  "strange  doctrines"  from  New  Eng- 
land and  thought  that  the  Church  should  not  pro- 
nounce upon  the  subject  of  slavery.  Matters  came 
to  a  head  in  1837,  when  the  General  Assembly,  with 
an  Old  School  majority,  abrogated  the  plan  of 
union  with  the  Congregationalists,  organized  a 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  and  excised  four  Synods 
in  New  York  and  Ohio.  The  excluded  Synods  or- 
ganized a  separate  Assembly,  and  the  division  of 
the  Church  into  Old  School  and  New  School  Pres- 
byterians was  complete. 

Further  divisions  occurred  over  the  slavery  ques- 
tion just  preceding  the  Civil  War.  The  Southern 
Presbyteries  of  the  New  School  Assembly  withdrew 
in  1857  and  organized  the  United  Synod  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war, 
in  1861,  the  Old  School  Presbyteries  in  the  South 
organized  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  Confed- 
erate States  of  America.  In  1863  a  union  of  the  two 
Southern  bodies  occurred,  which  in  1865  took  the 
name  of  the  "Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States,"  now  commonly  called  the  Southern  Pres- 
byterian Church.  In  1869  ^^^  ^wo  Assemblies 
which  had  resulted  from  the  division  In  1837  into 
Old  School  and  New  School  bodies  were  reunited 
"on  the  basis  of  the  standards,  pure  and  simple." 

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Early  in  the  century  great  revivals  in  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee  brought  up  a  controversy  in  that 
section  over  the  reception  and  ordination  of  min- 
isters who  *'v^^ere  neither  highly  educated  nor  firm 
believers  in  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church."  The  formation  of  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church  resulted.  In  1903  steps  were 
taken  looking  to  a  reunion  of  the  Churches.  The 
General  Assembly  of  the  parent  body  had  added 
new  chapters  to  the  Confession  of  Faith,  "not  to 
take  the  place  of  the  Confession  of  Faith  as  a  doc- 
trinal standard  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  but  to 
be  an  interpretation  of  it."  The  modification,  or 
interpretation,  proved  agreeable  to  a  majority  of  the 
Presbyteries  of  the  Cumberland  Church,  and  the 
union  was  consummated  in  1906  and  1907.  (But 
see  "The  Cumberland  Presbyterians,"  below.) 

The  Presbyterian  Church,  U.  S.  A.,  is  the  largest 
Presbyterian  body  in  the  world,  and  its  activities 
cover  not  only  every  part  of  the  homeland,  but  it 
is  one  of  the  leading  denominations  in  foreign  mis- 
sion work.  Its  Foreign  Mission  Board,  located  in 
New  York  City,  maintains  more  than  twelve  hun- 
dred missionaries,  besides  native  helpers,  in  twenty- 
seven  mission  stations.  The  contributions  to  the 
Board  exceed  $1,500,000  annually.  The  Home  Mis- 
sion Board,  located  in  New  York,  in  1914  adminis- 
tered $1,833,173.  The  Church  has  founded  or  con- 
trols sixty-five  colleges  and  universities.  The  lead- 
ing institution  is  Princeton  University,  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  founded  in  1746.  Other  important  institu- 
tions are :  Cumberland  University,  Lebanon,  Tenn. ; 
Highland  Park  College,  Des  Moines,  la. ;  Milliken 

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University,  Decatur,  111. ;  New  York  University, 
New  York;  Wooster  College,  Wooster,  Ohio;  and 
Trinity  University,  Waxahachie,  Tex.  There  are 
twelve  theological  seminaries,  the  most  important 
being  Princeton,  Auburn  (New  York),  AVestern 
(Pittsburg),  Lane  (Cincinnati),  and  McCormick 
(Chicago). 

The  Presbyterian  Handbook  for  191 5  does  not 
give  statistics  by  States  or  Presbyteries.  Its  sta- 
tistics for  the  whole  Church  are  as  follows : 

Synods    40 

Presbyteries    295 

Ministers    9,536 

Churches    10,130 

Churches  organized  179 

Churches   dissolved    no 

Members  added  on  examination 93,467 

Members  added  on  certificate 59,390 

Members  dismissed,  etc 51,212 

Members  restored    8,355 

Members,  suspended  roll 50,484 

Members  deceased  16,594 

Communicants    1,458,085 

Baptisms  on  confession 36,916 

Baptisms,   infants    34,9i9 

Sunday  school  members 1,318,628 

This  branch  of  Presbyterlanism  has  its  greatest 
membership  in  the  States  of  Pennsylvania,  New 
York,  Ohio,  New  Jersey,  Illinois,  and  Indiana,  in 
the  order  named. 

The  Presbyterian  Church,  U.  S.  (Southern  Pres- 
byterian).— In  1861  the  Old  School  Assembly,  meet- 
ing in  Philadelphia,  adopted  resolutions  of  loyalty 
to  the  Union  and  pledged  the  support  of  all  its  min- 
isters   and    Churches   to   the    Federal    government. 

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This  action  caused  the  Presbyteries  in  the  Southern 
States  to  withdraw,  and  at  a  meeting  held  in  Au- 
gusta, Ga.,  in  December,  1861,  the  Assembly  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  Confederate  States  of 
America  was  organized.  About  75,000  members, 
including  10,000  colored  members,  constituted  the 
new  body.  In  1863  a  union  was  effected  with  the 
United  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  Some 
of  the  border  Presbyteries  and  one  or  two  independ- 
ent bodies  were  absorbed,  adding  some  35,000  mem- 
bers. After  the  failure  of  the  Confederacy,  the 
Church  took  the  name  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  United  States. 

The  Southern  Presbyterians  have  a  publishing 
house  in  Richmond,  Va.,  and  theological  schools  and 
colleges  at  Richmond,  Columbia,  S.  C,  Clarksville, 
Tenn.,  Austin,  Tex.,  and  in  other  States.  The 
Church  expends  annually  about  $500,000  for  for- 
eign missions  and  $350,000  for  home  mission  work. 
This  Church  has  its  greatest  strength  in  North 
Carolina,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  South  Carolina. 
In  1914  the  Church  had  1,819  ministers,  3,43c 
churches,  and  310,602  communicants,  reporting  a 
gain  of  9,831  members  for  the  past  year. 

The  Cumberland  Presbyterians. — As  a  result  of 
the  great  revival  which  spread  over  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  during  the  first  decade  of  the  nineteenth 
century  congregations  developed  and  new  ones 
were  formed  more  rapidly  than  they  could  be  sup- 
plied with  well-equipped  and  ordained  ministers. 
To  meet  the  demand  the  Cumberland  (Ky.)  Pres- 
bytery ordained  and  settled  many  pastors  who  fell 
below  the  educational  standards  of  the  Church.  As 
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a  result  of  this  policy  the  Cumberland  Presbytery 
was  dissolved  by  the  Synod  of  Kentucky  (1806), 
of  which  it  was  a  member,  and  its  offending  minis- 
ters were  prohibited  from  preaching.  On  February 
4,  1810,  Finis  Ewing  and  Samuel  King,  two  of  the 
proscribed  ministers,  assisted  by  Samuel  McAdow, 
reorganized  the  Cumberland  Presbytery  as  an  in- 
dependent body  at  the  home  of  McAdow,  in  Dick- 
son County,  Tenn.  The  revival  continued  to 
spread ;  and  as  the  Cumberland  ministers  were  much 
In  sympathy  with  it,  the  new  body  grew  rapidly. 
In  1813  the  Cumberland  Synod  was  formed  with 
three  Presbyteries.  A  Confession  of  Faith  was 
adopted,  based  upon  the  Westminster  Confession, 
but  the  doctrine  of  the  decrees  of  election  and  repro- 
bation were  rejected.  In  1842  Cumberland  Univer- 
sity was  established  at  Lebanon,  Tenn.,  with  a  theo- 
logical department.  Other  schools  were  located  at 
AVaxahachle,  Tex.,  Lincoln,  111.,  Waynesburg,  Pa., 
Marshall,  Mo.,  and  Decatur,  111.,  indicating  the  ter- 
ritorial growth  of  the  Church,  and  a  publishing 
house  was  located  at  Nashville,  Tenn.  At  the  time 
of  the  reunion  with  the  Presbyterian  Church,  U.  S. 
A.  (1906),  the  Cumberland  body  had  tv/enty-six 
missionaries  in  the  foreign  field,  besides  seventeen 
sustained  by  the  women's  board.  There  were  at 
that  date  114  Presbyteries,  1,514  ordained  ministers, 
2,869  churches,  and  185,212  members.  Their 
Church  property  was  valued  at  $7,000,000. 

The  reunion  with  the  parent  body,  while  Intended 
to  embrace  the  entire  Cumberland  body,  In  reality 
produced  a  division  In  that  Church.  About  1,200 
ministers  and  90,000  members  accepted  the  union, 

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but  more  than  300  ministers  and  nearly  100,000 
members  held  aloof  and  have  continued  the  Cum- 
berland Church  as  a  separate  body.  After  much 
litigation  most  of  the  Cumberland  property  passed 
to  the  Presbyterian  Church,  U.  S.  A.  The  present 
Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church,  though  greatly 
handicapped  through  loss  of  property  and  the  want 
of  funds,  has  managed  to  survive  the  ''union"  and 
is  gradually  reorganizing  and  increasing  its  forces. 
The  last  reports  show  929  ministers,  1,600  churches, 
and  122,000  members. 

The  United  Presbyterian  Church. — ^This  Church 
was  organized  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  in  1858,  and  Pitts- 
burgh and  vicinity  still  constitute  its  field  of  activity. 
It  is  a  distinct  Presbyterian  body  in  this  country, 
being  descended  by  one  line  from  the  Covenanters 
of  Scotland  and  by  another  from  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland,  and  the  elements  which  formed  it  were 
mainly  from  Scotland.  It  accepts  the  Westminster 
standards,  but  differs  from  other  Presbyterian 
bodies  in  opposing  secret  societies,  observing 
"close"  communion,  and  in  using  only  the  book  of 
Psalms  in  Church  music.  Until  1881  instrumental 
music  was  forbidden  in  public  worship.  Statistics 
for  1914:  Ministers,  1,167;  churches,  1,126;  mem- 
bers, 148,220. 

The  Reformed  Presbyterian  Synod. — Formed  in 
1743  by  Scotch  Covenanters.  Members  of  this 
Church  do  not  vote  in  political  elections,  neither 
enlist  in  the  army  nor  serve  on  juries.  On  the  ques- 
tion of  these  civic  duties  the  Synod  was  divided  in 
1833,  and  the  General  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church   was   formed.     They   are   found   chiefly   in 

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Pennsylvania.  The  two  Synods  have  11,842  mem- 
bers. 

The  Welsh  Calvinistic  is  the  same  as  the  Church 
In  Wales  and  was  planted  in  this  country  by  Welsh 
immigrants.  It  has  in  this  country  (1914)  14,374 
communicants. 

The  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  the  South  was 
formed  in  1821  and  has  14,821  members,  found 
mainly  in  the  Carolinas. 

Other  Presbyterian  organizations  are  the  Asso- 
ciate Church  of  North  America,  with  less  than  1,000 
members ;  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian,  Colored, 
having  in  1906  18,000  members  (membership  at 
present  unknown)  ;  and  the  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  with  a 
membership  of  398. 

The  various  Presbyterian  bodies  of  the  world 
have  4,054,276  communicants,  including  those  In 
mission  lands.*  The  Bulletin  of  the  Federal  Coun- 
cil of  the  Churches  for  191 5  gives  the  total  com- 
municants for  all  Presbyterian  bodies  In  the  United 
States  as  2,083,617. 

"The  Presbyterian  Church  stands,  as  it  has  stood 
during  its  entire  history,  for  the  unconditional  sov- 
ereignty of  God,  for  the  Bible  as  the  only  Infallible 
rule  of  faith  and  life,  for  simplicity  of  worship,  rep- 
resentative government,  a  high  standard  of  Chrls- 

*No  Presbyterian  publication  can  be  found  which  gives  the 
denominational  statistics  for  the  world  or  in  all  countries. 
The  figures  are  compiled  from  articles  in  the  "New  Schaff- 
Herzog  Encyclopedia"  and  the  "New  International  Encyclo- 
pedia." 

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tian  living,  liberty  of  conscience,  popular  education, 
missionary  activity,  and  true  Christian  catholicity." 
(Presbyterian  Handbook.) 

The  Westminster  Confession  and  the  Larger  and 
Shorter  Catechisms  form  the  doctrinal  standards  of 
nearly  all  Presbyterian  bodies,  but  all  do  not  agree 
in  their  interpretation  of  these  standards.  The 
Presbyterian  Church,  U.  S.  A.,  has  from  time  to 
time  amended  and  modified  the  Confession,  though 
it  ''still  is  substantially  as  first  adopted."  The  most 
important  changes  v^ere  made  in  1903,  when  six 
chapters  of  the  Confession  were  amended  and  two 
chapters  were  added,  bearing  respectively  on  ''The 
Holy  Spirit"  and  "The  Love  of  God  and  Missions." 
A  Declaratory  Statemen»t,  issued  at  the  same  time 
and  published  in  the  Confession  of  Faith,  says : 

While  the  ordination  vow  of  ministers,  ruling  elders,  and 
deacons,  as  set  forth  in  the  Form  of  Government,  requires 
the  reception  and  adoption  of  the  Confession  of  Faith  only 
as  containing  the  System  of  Doctrine  taught  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  nevertheless,  seeing  that  the  desire  has  been  for- 
mally expressed  for  a  disavowal  by  the  Church  of  certain 
inferences  drawn  from  statements  in  the  Confession  of  Faith 
and  also  for  a  declaration  of  certain  aspects  of  revealed  truth 
which  appear  at  the  present  time  to  call  for  more  explicit 
statement,  therefore  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America  does  authoritatively  declare  as  follows : 

First,  with  reference  to  Chapter  III.  of  the  Confession  of 
Faith,  that,  concerning  those  who  are  saved  in  Christ,  the 
doctrine  of  God's  eternal  decree  is  held  in  harmony  with  the 
doctrine  of  his  love  to  all  mankind,  his  gift  of  his  Son  to 
be  the  propitiation  for  the  sins  of  the  whole  world,  and  his 
readiness  to  bestow  his  saving  grace  upon  all  who  seek  it ; 
that,    concerning   those    who    perish,    the    doctrine    of    God's 

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eternal  decree  is  held  in  harmony  with  the  doctrine  that  God 
desires  not  the  death  of  any  sinner,  but  has  provided  in 
Christ  a  salvation  sufficient  for  all,  adapted  to  all,  and  freely 
offered  in  the  gospel  to  all;  that  men  are  fully  responsible 
for  their  treatment  of  God's  gracious  offer;  that  his  decree 
hinders  no  man  from  accepting  that  offer;  and  that  no  man 
is  condemned  except  on  the  ground  of  his  sin. 

Second,  with  reference  to  Chapter  X.,  Section  3,  of  the 
Confession  of  Faith,  that  it  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  teaching 
that  any  who  die  in  infancy  are  lost.  We  believe  that  all 
dying  in  infancy  are  included  in  the  election  of  grace  and 
are  regenerated  and  saved  by  Christ  through  the  Spirit,  who 
works  when  and  where  and  how  he  pleases. 

The  Presbyterian  polity  has  the  following  char- 
acteristic features:  The  Session,  which  is  the  local 
Church  court,  consists  of  the  pastor  or  a  minister 
as  moderator  and  one  or  more  elders,  called  ruling 
elders,  chosen  from  the  congregation.  The  Presby- 
tery consists  of  all  ministers  and  one  ruling  elder 
from  each  congregation  within  a  certain  district. 
The  Synod  is  over  a  group  of  Presbyteries  and  is 
composed  of  ministers  and  elders  chosen  from  the 
Presbyteries.  The  General  Assembly  completes  the 
system  and  is  composed  of  ministers  and  elders 
chosen  by  the  Presbyteries.  The  General  Assem- 
bly meets  annually. 

There  is  but  one  order  in  the  ministry,  the  pres- 
byter, or  elder,  who  is  called  a  teaching  elder  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  ruling  elder,  who  is  a  layman. 
Candidates  are  ordained  to  the  ministry  and  in- 
stalled as  pastors  by  the  Presbytery.  Deacons  are 
lay  officers  in  the  Church  charged  with  supervision 
of  its  temporal  affairs. 

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PROTESTANT  EPISCOPALIANS. 

The  Church  of  England  provided  clergymen  for 
the  colonists  in  America,  who  formed  parishes 
among  them  and  instituted  the  Anglican  worship. 
The  Church  of  the  mother  country  became  the  es- 
tablished religion  in  the  colonies  of  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Virginia,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia.  In 
Massachusetts  the  Anglican  Church  was  not  al^ 
lowed  until  it  came  in  "at  the  point  of  the  bayonet" 
by  royal  proclamation.  But  the  Church  never 
gained  the  footing  in  New  England  that  it  held  in 
the  middle  and  southern  colonies.  The  American 
branch  of  the  Church  during  the  colonial  period  was 
under  the  nominal  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of 
London,  who,  however,  never  visited  the  colonies 
nor  provided  any  adequate  disciplinary  oversight 
for  them. 

During  the  War  of  the  Revolution  many  of  the 
Anglican  clergymen  fled  the  country,  leaving  their 
parishes  vacant.  In  Virginia,  where  at  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities  there  had  been  ninety-one  clergymen, 
only  twenty-eight  remained  at  the  close  of  the  war. 
But  the  Toryism  so  general  among  the  clergy  was 
in  striking  contrast  to  the  patriotism  of  the  larger 
part  of  their  parishioners.  From  the  body  of  the 
membership  of  this  Church  came  two-thirds  of  the 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the 
commander  In  chief  of  the  American  armies,  after- 
wards first  President  of  the  United  States,  and 
nearly  all  the  statesmen  who  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  republic. 

The  Church  of  England  in  the  colonies  became 
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the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States.  The  organization  of  the  new  Church  was 
completed  at  Philadelphia  in  1789.  The  movement 
for  the  organization  of  a  separate  Church  was  begun 
at  a  meeting  of  clergymen  from  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  held  in  1784  at  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.  A  call  was  issued  for  a  general 
convention  to  meet  the  following  year.  State  con- 
ventions were  held  which  organized  dioceses  and 
appointed  delegates  to  the  convention.  But  all  the 
States  were  not  represented  in  the  convention,  and 
the  organization  was  not  completed.  In  the  mean- 
time the  clergy  of  Connecticut  elected  a  bishop,  the 
Rev.  Samuel  Seabury.  He  failed  to  obtain  recog- 
nition by  the  Church  of  England,  and  in  1784  he 
visited  Scotland,  where  he  was  consecrated  by  three 
bishops  of  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church.  Three 
other  bishops  were  elected  by  State  diocesan  con- 
ventions— namely.  Dr.  Samuel  Provoost,  of  New 
York,  Dr.  William  White,  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Dr. 
David  Griffith,  of  Virginia.  Bishops  White  and 
Provoost  were  consecrated  by  the  English  Bishop 
in  London  in  1787.  The  convention  of  1789  recog- 
nized the  consecration  of  Bishop  Seabury,  and  the 
Church  was  fully  organized  with  bishops  of  the 
Scottish  and  English  "succession."  A  constitution 
was  adopted  and  a  prayer  book  formulated,  which 
was  essentially  the  same  as  the  English  prayer 
book.  The  position  of  the  Church,  as  declared  in 
the  preface  to  the  prayer  book,  was  that  "this 
Church  is  far  from  intending  to  depart  from  the 
Church  of  England  in  any  essential  point  of  doc- 
trine,   discipline,    or    worship."      Its    identification 

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with  the  EngHsh  Church  in  the  popular  mind  stood 
in  the  way  of  Episcopal  progress  in  this  country 
for  nearly  a  generation.  The  twenty  clergymen 
and  sixteen  laymen  in  the  organizing  convention 
of  1789  were  in  181 1  increased  by  only  five  clerical 
and  four  lay  representatives.  But  with  the  organi- 
zation of  dioceses  in  the  newer  Western  States  a 
missionary  spirit  took  hold  of  the  Church,  and  its 
expansion  after  1832  was  very  rapid.  The  Episco- 
pal convention  of  that  year  took  account  of  about 
six  hundred  clergymen.  Three  years  later  the  num- 
ber had  increased  to  763,  and  in  1838  it  had  reached 

951. 

The  Civil  War  threatened  the  integrity  of  the 
Church.  The  dioceses  in  the  seceded  States  con- 
sidered themselves  forced  to  ecclesiastical  separa- 
tion, but  declared  that,  "though  now  found  within 
different  political  boundaries,  the  Church  remains 
substantially  one.'*  The  same  view  was  taken  by 
the  Church  in  the  Northern  States.  There  was  a 
complete  reunion  after  the  war.  The  formation  of 
the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  in  1873  produced 
the  only  permanent  schism  which  has  occurred  in 
the  history  of  the  Church. 

The  doctrinal  position  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
is  based  upon  the  Apostles'  and  Nicene  Creeds, 
together  with  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles  of  the 
Church  of  England.  The  Church  considers  itself 
"a  possible  center  and  rallying  point  for  the  reunion 
of  the  widely  varying  forms  of  Protestant  Chris- 
tianity in  America."  A  movement  looking  toward 
conciliation  began  as  far  back  as  1853,  but  it  did 
not  find  definite  expression  until    1886,  when   the 

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House  of  Bishops  set  forth  as  "an  irreducible  mini- 
mum" the  following  position  as  a  basis  for  the  res- 
toration of  unity  among  the  divided  forces  of  Prot- 
estantism:  (i)  The  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  as  the  revealed  word  of  God ;  (2) 
the  Nicene  Creed  as  a  sufficient  statement  of  the 
Christian  faith;  (3)  the  two  sacraments,  baptism 
and  the  Lord's  Supper,  ministered  with  unfailing 
use  of  Christ's  words  of  institution  and  of  the  ele- 
ments ordained  by  him ;  (4)  the  historic  episcopate 
locally  adapted  in  the  methods  of  its  administration 
to  the  varying  needs  of  the  nations  and  peoples 
called  by  God  into  the  unity  of  his  Church. 

The  supreme  judicial  and  legislative  body  of  the 
Church  is  the  General  Convention,  which  meets 
triennially.  It  is  composed  of  two  houses — the 
House  of  Bishops,  consisting  of  all  the  bishops  of 
the  Church,  and  the  House  of  Deputies,  composed 
of  clerical  and  lay  delegates  from  the  various  dio- 
ceses. Every  measure  to  become  a  law  must  be 
passed  by  both  houses  and  must  receive  the  con- 
currence of  both  orders  in  the  House  of  Deputies. 
Each  diocese  holds  an  annual  convention,  composed 
of  all  the  clergy  and  lay  delegates  from  each  parish, 
the  resident  bishop  being  the  presiding  officer.  The 
diocesan  conventions  legislate  for  the  internal  af- 
fairs of  each  diocese  under  certain  restrictions. 
Each  diocese  has  also  a  standing  administration 
committee.  There  are  three  orders  in  the  ministry — 
bishops,  priests,  and  deacons.  Bishops  are  elected 
by  diocesan  conventions,  but  their  election  must  be 
confirmed  by  a  majority  of  all  the  diocesan  standing 
committees  and  of  the  bishops.    The  bishop  resides 

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within  his  diocese,  Hcenses  lay  readers,  ordains 
priests  and  deacons,  administers  the  rite  of  confir- 
mation to  members,  and  is  required  to  visit  every 
parish  in  his  diocese  at  least  once  in  three  years. 
The  affairs  of  the  local  Church  are  in  charge  of  the 
rector,  who  is  chosen  by  the  vestry  of  the  parish, 
usually  after  conference  with  the  bishop.  The 
vestrymen  are  trustees  of  local  Church  property. 
Wardens  have  charge  of  the  records  and  finances 
of  the  Church.  A  vestry  meeting  consists  of  the 
vestrymen  and  at  least  one  warden. 

At  the  forty-fourth  General  Convention,  which 
met  in  New  York  in  1913,  the  question  which  ex- 
cited the  deepest  interest  was  that  relating  to 
Christian  unity.  A  movement  to  strike  out  the  word 
"Protestant"  from  the  Church  name  as  sectarian 
made  such  headway  that  the  proposal  was  re- 
ferred to  a  commission  which  shall  report  at  the 
next  Convention. 

Columbia  University  (originally  King's  College), 
New  York,  is  the  leading  educational  institution  of 
the  Church.  It  is  nonsectarian,  with  the  exception 
that  its  president  must  be  a  member  of  the  Episco- 
pal Church.  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  Ken- 
yon  College,  Gambier,  Ohio,  Hobert  College,  Ge- 
neva, N.  Y.,  the  University  of  the  South,  Sewanee, 
Tenn.,  and  Lehigh  University,  South  Bethlehem, 
Pa.,  are  other  important  institutions  of  the  Church. 
There  are  about  sixteen  theological  schools,  the 
General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  being  the 
leading  one.  Missionary  work  Is  carried  on  in 
Africa,  Cuba,  Mexico,  China,  Japan,  Brazil,  and  on 
the  Continent  of  Europe. 

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The  Church  has  its  greatest  strength  in  the  fol- 
lowing States,  in  the  order  named  :  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, New  Jersey,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
Maryland,  and  Virginia.  The  report  for  1914 
credits  it  with  5,546  ministers,  7,922  churches,  and 
1,015,248  communicants,  a  gain  for  the  year  of 
28,641. 


REFORMED  EPISCOPAL. 

The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  was  organized 
in  New  York  City  December  2,  1873,  with  eight 
clergymen,  including  one  bishop  and  twenty  lay- 
men. The  bishop  was  George  David  Cummins, 
who  had  been  assistant  bishop  of  the  diocese  of 
Kentucky  until  in  November  of  that  year,  when  he 
resigned  his  office  and  withdrew  from  the  denomi- 
nation. Cummins  became  the  first  bishop  of  the 
new  Church ;  but  the  Rev.  Charles  Edward  Cheney, 
of  Chicago,  was  elected  Bishop  of  the  West  at  the 
meeting  in  New  York  and  was  consecrated  by  Cum- 
mins. 

The  new  Church  justified  the  separation  on  the 
ground  of  the  alleged  growth  of  sacramentarianism 
and  sacerdotalism  in  the  parent  body,  "the  substi- 
tution ^^^  the  Roman  dogma  and  rites  for  the  .  .  . 
Reformed  doctrine  and  Protestant  liturgical  wor- 
ship," and  it  was  alleged  that  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  had  departed  from  the  beliefs  and 
practices  held  during  the  early  days  of  American 
history.  The  new  Church  holds  that  the  episcopate 
Is  not  a  separate  order  In  the  ministry,  but  that 
bishops  are  primus  inter  pares.     It  repudiates  the 

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dogma  of  apostolic  succession  and  rejects  "as  er- 
roneous and  strange  doctrine  that  the  Church  of 
Christ  exists  in  only  one  order  or  form  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal polity."  The  title  of  priest  is  rejected,  and  only 
two  orders  are  recognized  in  the  ministry — presby- 
ter, or  elder,  and  deacon. 

The  Church  for  1913  reported  three  bishops, 
eighty-three  ministers,  eighty  churches,  and  10,800 
communicants,  a  gain  of  four  hundred  communi- 
cants for  the  year.  The  movement  for  reform  has 
a  considerable  following  in  England,  where  the 
Church  was  introduced  in  1877.  The  English 
branch  had  in  1910  one  bishop,  twenty-eight  min- 
isters, and  1,990  communicants. 

Episcopalian  adherents  for  the  world,  including 
the  Church  of  England  and  its  branches  in  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  and  the  colonies,  are  estimated 
(World  Alamac,  1914)  to  number  32,000,000.  The 
number  of  communicants  is  as  follows : 

England  and  Wales   (1901) 2,223,207 

United  States   (1914)  » 1,026,048 

Canada   (1913)    1,043,017 

Australasia  (looi)   1,509,750 


REFORMED  BODIES. 

There  are  four  bodies  constituting  the  Reformed 
group  in  this  country,  two  of  Dutch  descent  and 
two  of  German. 

The  history  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  Holland 
is  the  history  of  the  Reformation  in  that  country. 
Holland  gave  to  the  Reformation  its  first  martyrs, 
the  monks  John  Esch  and  Henry  Voes  having  been 

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burned  at  Brussels  in  1523  for  their  evangelical 
preaching.  The  Spanish  rulers  of  the  Netherlands 
resorted  to  the  severest  measures  to  crush  the  ris- 
ing spirit  of  religious  liberty,  and  under  the  Duke 
of  Alva,  v^ho  was  sent  to  crush  the  revolt,  accord- 
ing to  Grotius,  a  hundred  thousand  Protestants  lost 
their  lives  during  his  six  years'  rule  (1567-73). 
The  rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  under  William  of 
Orange,  accomplished  the  severance  of  the  northern 
provinces  from  Spanish  and  Catholic  rule  and  made 
way  for  the  establishment  of  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church.  The  first  Synod  was  held  at  Embden,  out- 
side the  Netherlands,  on  account  of  Spanish  perse- 
cutions. The  University  of  Leyden  was  established 
soon  afterwards. 

While  the  Dutch  Reformation  got  its  first  im- 
pulse from  Luther,  the  movement  soon  came  under 
the  influence  of  Calvin  and  the  Swiss  reformers. 
The  Synod  of  Dort  (1618-19)  condemned  Arminian- 
ism  and  adopted  canons  which  were  rigorously  Cal- 
vinistic.  In  1648,  at  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  the 
Reformed  faith  became  the  established  religion  of 
Holland.  The  Dutch  Reformed  Church  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Alliance  of  Reformed  Churches  through- 
out the  World  Holding  the  Presbyterian  System. 
The  branches  of  this  Church  in  various  parts  of  the 
world  have  grown  up  from  Dutch  immigration. 
There  are  more  than  500,000  communicants  of 
various  Dutch  bodies  in  South  Africa. 

The  Reformed  Church  in  America. — Dutch  set- 
tlers in  New  Amsterdam  organized  a  Church  in 
1628  under  the  pastorate  of  the  Rev.  Jonas  Michsel- 
ius.     This  Church  still  exists  as  the  wealthy  Col- 

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legiate  Church,  with  numerous  buildings  and  four- 
teen ministers.  Many  churches  erected  on  the  Hud- 
son by  Dutch  settlers  are  still  standing  after  two 
centuries.  German  immigrants  holding  the  Re- 
formed faith  and  other  elements  have  entered  into 
the  growth  of  the  Church  in  America.  In  1792 
the  Church  set  up  an  organization  independent  of 
the  Church  in  Holland,  but  has  continued  to  adhere 
to  the  standards  of  the  parent  Church.  The  Church 
gave  its  indorsement  to  the  Westminster  Catechism 
in  1837.  While  in  polity  the  Church  is  Presby- 
terian, its  terminology  differs  from  the  Presbyterian 
denominations.  It  has  Consistories,  Classes,  Pro- 
vincial Synods,  and  General  Synods,  correspond- 
ing to  the  Sessions,  Presbyteries,  Synods,  and  Gen- 
eral Assemblies  of  the  Presbyterians.  The  Church 
has  about  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  mission- 
aries in  foreign  fields.  It  has  colleges  located  at 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  in  Michigan,  and  other  lo- 
calities. The  Church  is  strongest  in  the  States  of 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  and  Michigan.  Statistics 
for  1914:  Ministers,  775;  churches,  707;  members, 

123,143. 

Christian  Reformed  Church. — ^This  body  is  a 
branch  of  a  Church  of  the  same  name  in  Holland 
which  separated  from  the  State  Church  of  Holland 
in  1835.  In  1882  and  again  in  1889  its  ranks  were 
increased  by  the  absorption  of  small  bodies  which 
had  split  off  from  the  Reformed  Church  in  America. 
It  has  a  seminary  and  college  at  Grand  Rapids, 
Mich.    Membership,  34,648. 

Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States. — This 
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Church,  commonly  called  the  German  Reformed, 
was  planted  in  America  by  German  immigrants 
from  the  Palatinate  and  other  districts  in  Germany 
where  the  Reformed  faith,  in  distinction  from  the 
Lutheran,  is  held.  The  Church  in  this  country  was 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Church  of  Holland 
until  1793,  when  an  independent  organization  was 
formed.  Many  of  the  German  Churches  in  New 
York  went  into  the  Dutch  Reformed  body ;  but,  not- 
withstanding these  losses,  the  German  Reformed 
has  greatly  outstripped  its  sister  Church  in  growth, 
due  mainly  to  immigration.  The  German  body  is 
also  more  aggressive  in  home  mission  work.  For- 
eign mission  work  is  carried  on  in  China,  Japan, 
and  in  other  parts.  The  Church  has  numerous 
schools  and  colleges.  In  doctrine  and  polity  the 
German  Reformed  is  similar  to  the  Presbyterian 
bodies,  and  it  is  a  member  of  the  Presbyterian  Al- 
liance ;  but  in  government  the  Church  is  more  demo- 
cratic and  more  rights  are  reserved  by  the  congre- 
gations. The  worship  is  more  liturgical.  About 
three-fourths  of  the  congregations  use  the  English 
language  in  their  Church  services.  Statistics  for 
1914:  Ministers,  1,217;  churches,  1,770;  members, 
312,660. 

The  Hungarian  Reformed. — This  body  in  this 
country  is  made  up  exclusively  of  Magyar,  German, 
and  Slavonic  immigrants  from  Hungary.  The 
Church  belongs  to  the  Alliance  of  Reformed 
Churches  and  is  Presbyterian  in  doctrine  and  polity. 
Membership,  8,500. 

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ROMAN  CATHOLICS. 

The  full  name  of  this  communion  is  *'The  Holy, 
Catholic,  Apostolic,  and  Roman  Church."  It  con- 
stitutes the  largest  body  of  Christians  in  existence, 
numbering  within  its  fold  or  holding  under  its  sway 
about  one-half  of  the  Christian  population  of  the 
world. 

The  historical  development  of  Roman  Catholicism 
is  usually  divided  into  three  stages,  as  follows:  (i) 
The  age  of  Greco-Latin  Catholicism,  extending 
from  the  end  of  the  Apostolic  Age,  or  the  second 
century,  to  the  eighth  century ;  (2)  the  age  of  Latin 
Catholicism,  as  distinct  and  separated  from  Greek 
Catholicism,  extending  from  Charlemagne  to 
Luther;  and  (3)  Modern  Romanism,  extending 
from  the  Reformation  (or  from  the  Council  of 
Trent)  to  the  present  time. 

Concerning  the  first  period,  the  historian  Schafif 
says :  "This  is  the  common  inheritance  of  all 
Churches.  It  is  the  age  of  the  fathers,  of  the  ecu- 
menical creeds  and  councils,  and  of  the  Christian 
emperors."  But  note :  "Many  of  the  leading  fea- 
tures of  Roman  Catholicism,  as  distinguished  from 
Protestantism,  are  already  found  in  the  second  and 
third  centuries  and  have  their  roots  in  the  Judaizing 
tendencies  combated  by  St.  Paul.  The  spirit  of 
traditionalism,  sacerdotalism,  prelacy,  ceremonial- 
ism, asceticism,  and  monasticism  was  powerfully  at 
work  in  the  East  and  the  West,  in  the  Nicene  and 
post-Nicene  ages,  and  produced  most  of  those  doc- 
trines, rites,  and  institutions  which  are  to  this  day 
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held  In  common  hy  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Churches." 

The  second  period  witnessed  the  division  of  the 
Church  into  the  Eastern,  or  Greek,  Church,  and  the 
Western,  or  Roman.  The  Roman  Church  was  very 
active  during  this  age  in  bringing  under  its  sway 
the  tribes  of  Central  and  Northern  Europe.  The 
period  is  characterized  also  by  the  scholastic  theo- 
logical discussions,  by  the  growth  of  papal  absolu- 
tism, by  the  Crusades,  and  by  the  revival  of  monas- 
ticism  and  the  rise  of  the  mendicant  orders.  It  was 
this  age  that  gave  rise  to  the  abuses  within  the 
Church  which  brought  on  the  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion. 

The  period  of  modern  Romanism  was  ushered  in 
by  the  geographical  discoveries  made  by  Catholic 
nations  in  the  New  World.  These  opened  up  new 
fields  of  conquest  for  the  Church  and  enabled  her 
to  retrieve  in  a  large  measure  the  losses  sustained 
by  the  Protestant  secession.  The  missionary  ac- 
tivity of  the  period  accounts  for  the  Catholic  conti- 
nent of  South  America  and  the  extensive  footing 
gained  by  the  Catholics  in  the  early  history  of 
North  America.  Missionary  operations  extended 
also  to  the  Far  East.  As  early  as  1549  Francis 
Xavier  founded  missions  in  Japan,  which  grew 
Avithin  thirty  years  to  number  200,000  Christians; 
but  bloody  persecutions  wiped  out  all  but  a  scat- 
tered remnant  of  these  early  converts.  Later  mis- 
sions in  China  met  a  similar  fate. 

This  extension  of  the  sway  of  Rome  was  due  to 
the  zeal  of  the  Jesuits,  or  Society  of  Jesus,  an  order 
founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola  about  1538.     This  so- 

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ciety  is  also  credited  with  preventing  the  collapse 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  European  coun- 
tries where  Protestantism  had  gained  a  foothold 
by  originating  what  is  known  as  the  Catholic 
Counter-Reformation.  The  Jesuits  raised  the  stand- 
ard of  education  and  morality,  and  by  their  en- 
thusiasm and  piety  they  revived  the  whole  Church. 
Their  vows  included  an  obligation  to  go  on  any 
mission  for,  or  to  obey  any  behest  of,  the  pope,  and 
wherever  they  operated  they  were  regarded  as  the 
special  upholders  of  the  papacy  and  the  most  faith- 
ful defenders  of  the  Catholic  faith.  Political  in- 
triguing led  to  the  suppression  of  the  society  by 
an  edict  in  1773;  but  the  order  was  revived  in  1814. 
There  are  now  about  sixteen  thousand  Jesuits 
throughout  the  world,  of  whom  about  one-half  are 
priests.  The  influence  of  the  order  may  be  esti- 
mated from  a  statement  recently  made  by  a  Cath- 
olic archbishop  that  "the  whole  Church  has  been 
Jesuitized."  The  head  of  the  order  is  known  as  the 
"black  pope"  and  resides  in  Rome. 

The  Counter-Reformation,  inaugurated  by  the 
Jesuits,  culminated  in  the  Council  of  Trent,  held 
with  intermissions  from  1545  to  1563.  It  was  con- 
vened in  response  to  a  long  and  widespread  demand 
for  reform  in  the  Church  "in  head  and  members." 
But  Its  belated  assembling  found  most  of  the  ardent 
advocates  of  real  reform  gone  with  the  Protestants, 
and  the  reactionary  party  was  left  in  control.  Every 
attack  on  the  papal  power  failed,  as  did  also  every 
effort  to  incorporate  liberal  or  evangelical  doctrines 
in  the  creed  of  the  Church.  The  Council  fixed  the 
stigma  of  heresy  upon  Protestantism  and  consoli- 

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dated  the  Church  by  fixing  a  standard  of  orthodoxy 
and  accomplishing  a  better  organization  and  dis- 
cipHne.  The  decisions  and  decrees  of  the  Council 
were  formulated  by  a  commission  of  cardinals  under 
the  direction  of  Pope  Pius  IV.  and  were  proclaimed 
by  him  in  1564  as  the  creed  of  the  Church.  This 
creed,  known  as  the  Creed  of  Pius  IV.,  together 
with  the  dogmas  proclaimed  from  the  Vatican  dur- 
ing the  last  century,  constitutes  the  doctrinal  sys- 
tem of  modern  Romanism. 

The  nineteenth  century  was  a  memorable  one  in 
Roman  annals.  Not  only  were  important  additions 
made  to  the  Roman  cneed,  but  the  position  of  the 
papacy  was  greatly  altered.  Political  movements 
in  Europe  brought  an  end  to  papal  temporal  sov- 
ereignty by  the  absorption  of  the  papal  kingdom  in 
Italy.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  spiritual  preten- 
sions of  the  Bishop  of  Rome  attained  a  recognition 
never  before  known.  Pope  Pius  IX.  assumed  the 
functions  of  a  council  and  in  1854  proclaimed  the 
dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  thus  on  his 
own  responsibility  deciding  a  question  of  belief  on 
which  the  doctors  of  the  Church  were  divided.  In 
1864  he  issued  an  Encyclic,  together  with  a  Syllabus 
of  Errors,  *'almed  at  the  basic  Ideas  of  modern 
civilization  and  culture."  But  the  climax  was 
reached  in  1870 — the  year  In  which  the  last  vestige 
of  temporal  power  outside  the  walls  of  the  Vatican 
disappeared — when  a  Vatican  council,  over  the 
heads  of  strong  opposition  in  the  Church  and  In  the 
council  Itself,  ratified  the  decree  of  papal  Infalli- 
bility, and  so  fixed  It  as  a  dogma  of  the  Church. 
This  action  is  regarded  as  the  triumph  of  Jesuitism. 

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But  while  recent  times  have  seen  the  perfection 
of  the  ecclesiastical  and  creedal  system  of  the 
Church,  they  have  witnessed  also  the  decay  in  posi- 
tion and  prestige  of  the  Church  of  Rome  on  her 
own  ground.  In  Italy,  until  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  the  clergy,  including  the  religious  orders, 
were  exempt  from  temporal  jurisdiction,  and  all  pub- 
lic, educational,  and  charitable  institutions  were  in 
their  hands.  But  in  1866  all  religious  orders  not 
engaged  in  teaching,  preaching,  or  nursing  the  sick 
were  dissolved  and  their  property  alienated  by  the 
State.  In  1873  all  Roman  Catholic  theological  facul- 
ties in  State  universities  were  abolished.  In  France 
complete  separation  of  Church  and  State  became 
effective  by  legal  enactment  in  1906,  when,  among 
other  provisions,  all  appropriations  for  public  wor- 
ship were  repealed,  and  all  churches,  chapels,  epis- 
copal palaces,  and  parsonages  were  declared  the 
property  of  the  State.  In  Portugal  there  is  a  strong 
movement  away  from  the  Church.  A  powerful 
anticlerical  party  has  developed  whose  program  is 
a  complete  separation  of  Church  and  State.  In 
Spain,  the  seat  of  the  Inquisition,  there  is  declared 
to  be  a  gradual,  silent  revolt  of  the  great  body  of 
intelligent  laymen  against  the  Roman  system.  "Of 
the  four  or  five  million  adult  males  in  the  country," 
says  Joseph  McCabe  In  "Decay  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,"  "only  about  one  million  are  Roman  Catho- 
lics, and  these  are  for  the  most  part  illiterate." 
Says  another  observer:  "There  are  tens  of  thou- 
sands in  the  country  whose  only  use  for  the  church 
Is  at  marriages,  christening,  or  burial  services. 
This  is  the   feeling  that  impresses   the  visitor  to 

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Spain  when  he  sees  the  few  scattered  worshipers  in 
the  magnificent  cathedrals  in  the  cities  and  hears 
the  contemptuous,  jesting  manner  in  which  the 
average  inteUigent  Spaniard  refers  to  the  liaisons 
of  the  priests,  the  worship  of  saints  and  images,  the 
miracles  wrought  by  relics,  the  pretentious  cere- 
monies of  the  Church,  or  the  solemn  assumptions 
of  the  Roman  pontiff." 

But,  as  in  the  days  of  the  Reformation,  the 
Church  is  exerting  itself  to  make  up  in  other  direc- 
tions its  losses  at  home.  In  Germany  the  Catholic 
revival  has  been  very  marked;  but  it  is  in  the 
English-speaking  countries,  in  England  and  her 
colonies  and  in  the  United  States,  that  the  Church 
is  putting  forth  her  greatest  efforts  for  adherents 
and  power. 

The  Roman  governmental  system  centers  In  the 
pope,  who  is  regarded  by  this  communion  as  the 
supreme  head  of  Christendom  and  vicar  of  Christ 
on  earth.  Romanists  have  constructed  a  theory  of 
the  origin  of  the  papacy  which  gives  It  divine  sanc- 
tion and  clothes  it  with  unearthly  authority.  Ac- 
cording to  this  theory,  the  apostle  Peter  was  set  at 
the  head  of  the  Church  by  Jesus  Christ  and  Invested 
with  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven ;  Peter 
became  the  first  bishop  of  the  Church  at  Rome ;  and 
"the  holy  and  blessed  Peter  .  .  .  lives,  pre- 
sides, and  judges  to  this  day  and  always  In  his  suc- 
cessors the  bishops  of  the  Holy  See  of  Rome,  which 
was  founded  by  him  and  consecrated  by  his  blood. 
Whence  whosoever  succeeds  to  Peter  In  this  See 
does  by  the  Institution  of  Christ  himself  obtain  the 
primacy  of  Peter  over  the  whole  Church.     Hence 

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we  teach  and  declare  that  by  the  appointment  of 
our  Lord  the  Roman  Church  possesses  a  superiority 
of  ordinary  power  over  all  other  Churches.  .  .  . 
This  power  of  jurisdiction  of  the  Roman  pontiff  is 
immediate,  to  which  all,  of  whatever  rite  and  dig- 
nity, both  pastors  and  faithful,  both  individually 
and  collectively,  are  bound  ...  to  submit  not 
only  in  matters  which  belong  to  faith  and  morals, 
but  also  in  those  that  appertain  to  the  discipline 
and  government  of  the  Church  throughout  the 
world."*  The  supreme  authority  of  the  pope,  it  is 
claimed,  extends  over  the  temporal  as  well  as  the 
spiritual  affairs  of  the  world.  Cardinal  Gibbons 
maintains  that  the  temporal  power  is  necessary  for 
the  "independence  and  freedom  of  the  pope  in  the 
government  of  the  Church.  The  holy  father  must 
be  either  a  sovereign  or  a  subject.  There  is  no 
medium."  The  doctrine  of  the  temporal  sover- 
eignty of  the  pope  received  its  authoritative  enun- 
ciation in  the  famous  bull  of  Boniface  VIII. ,  Unam 
Sanctam,  from  which  the  following  is  quoted:  "We 
are  instructed  by  the  Gospels  that  there  are  in  his 
power  [the  pope's]  two  swords — viz.,  the  spiritual 
and  the  temporal."  (Reference  is  made  to  Luke 
xxii.  38.)  "Therefore  both  are  in  the  power  of  the 
Church,  both  the  spiritual  and  the  material  sword, 
.  .  .  and  the  temporal  authority  should  be  sub- 
ject to  the  spiritual."  The  bull  concludes  with  the 
declaration :  "Then  to  be  subject  to  the  Roman  pon- 
tiff we  declare,  say,  define,  and  pronounce  to  be 

*Schaff,  "Creeds  of  Christendom,"  quoted  in  Foster's  "Fun- 
damental Ideas  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church." 

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absolutely  necessary  to  every  human  creature  to 
salvation." 

The  pope  resides  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome,  ''keep- 
ing a  court  of  about  eighteen  hundred  persons  and 
maintaining  the  Curia  for  the  government  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  at  large."  By  Italian  law 
the  pope  is  independent,  and  his  person  is  sacred 
and  inviolable,  like  that  of  the  king.  The  honors 
of  sovereignty  are  due  him,  and  he  is  allowed  to 
keep  a  bodyguard.  Many  nations  send  representa- 
tives to  the  Vatican  as  to  a  foreign  nation,  and  the 
Vatican  has  "apostolic  delegates"  at  many  foreign 
capitals.  The  pope  is  elected  by  the  cardinals,  who 
rank  next  to  him  in  honor  and  share  with  him  in 
the  government  of  the  Church.  A  full  college  of 
cardinals  consists  of  seventy  members.  They  are 
chosen  by  the  pope  and  are  consecrated  by  him, 
when  they  take  the  distinctive  scarlet  dress  and  the 
red  cap.  A  majority  of  the  cardinals  live  in  Rome, 
where  they  are  at  the  heads  of  various  departments 
of  the  Church  called  congregations,  as  the  Congre- 
gation for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith. 

Next  in  order  are  archbishops,  who  are  over  prov- 
inces, and  bishops,  who  are  heads  of  dioceses,  all 
of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  pope.  Priests  and 
deacons  are  in  charge  of  parishes  and  missions.  In 
all  matters  of  administration  the  laity  are  excluded. 
The  educational  and  charitable  work  of  the  Church 
is  under  the  control  of  teaching  and  hospital  orders, 
of  which  there  are  a  large  number. 

The  doctrinal  system  of  Rome,  as  defined  by  the 
Council  of  Trent,  consists  in  a  reaffimation  of  the 
Nicene  creed  and  ten  additional  articles.     In  this 

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formula  tradition  is  accorded  equal  authority  with 
Scripture  as  a  source  of  doctrine.  The  position  of 
the  Church  is  stated  on  original  sin  and  justifica- 
tion; justification  is  by  faith  and  works  conjoined. 
The  seven  sacraments  are  fixed  and  defined — name- 
ly, baptism,  confirmation,  the  Lord's  Supper,  pen- 
ance, extreme  unction,  orders,  and  matrimony.  The 
sacraments  not  only  symbolize  the  grace,  but  they 
convey  the  grace  signified.  The  creed  affirms  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation  and  the  sacrificial 
nature  of  the  mass,  the  invocation  of  saints,  the 
worship  of  relics,  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  and  that 
the  souls  confined  in  purgatory  are  helped  in  their 
purification  by  the  prayers  and  masses  of  the  living, 
the  worship  of  images,  the  virtue  of  indulgences, 
the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  Church  and  the  au- 
thority of  the  Roman  pontifif,  and  everything  con- 
trary to  the  decrees  of  the  council  are  condemned 
and  anathematized.  The  creed  declares  in  effect 
that  only  those  "who  freely  profess  and  truly  hold 
the  true  Catholic  faith  can  be  saved."  All  priests 
and  teachers  of  the  Church,  as  well  as  all  converts 
from  other  faiths,  must  subscribe  to  this  creed  with 
an  oath.  The  two  papal  dogmas,  that  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  and  of  Papal  Infallibility,  are 
articles  of  faith  and  are  as  binding  as  the  Triden- 
tine  Confession.  The  Article  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception  asserts  that  "the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary, 
by  a  singular  grace  and  privilege  of  Almighty  God, 
in  view  of  the  merits  of  Christ  Jesus  the  Saviour  of 
mankind,  has  been  preserved  free  from  all  stain  of 
original  sin." 

"In  the  veneration  of  saints,  relics,  images,  and 
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the  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary  pagan  Rome  still 
lives  in  its  ancestor  and  image  cults  and  its  female 
divinities."  Mariolatry  is  also  partly  derived  from 
the  Roman  theological  view  of  Christ,  which  loses 
sight  of  his  humanity  in  its  conception  of  his  awful 
divinity,  and  the  need  became  felt  in  the  popular 
mind  for  a  mediator  between  man  and  Christ. 
Apocryphal  writings,  filled  with  supernatural 
legends  of  the  Virgin,  have  also  contributed  to  the 
rise  of  her  worship. 

In  Roman  Catholic  worship  the  mass  holds  the 
central  place.  The  doctrine  of  transubstantiation 
teaches  that  the  elements  of  bread  and  wine  in  this 
service  are  transformed  into  the  real  substance  of 
Christ,  he  appearing  entire  in  each  of  the  elements. 
The  sacrament  is  carried  on  with  much  solemnity, 
calculated  to  impress  the  minds  of  the  worshipers 
with  the  feeling  that  the  elements  are  supernatural. 
Certain  orders  pursue  what  is  known  as  perpetual 
adoration  of  the  eucharist,  in  which  one  of  their 
number  is  kept  in  constant  adoration  and  worship 
before  the  elements  of  the  mass.  All  services 
throughout  the  world  are  conducted  in  the  Latin 
tongue.  Singing  is  restricted  to  chants  by  priests 
or  choirs. 

The  attitude  of  Rome  toward  modern  institutions 
was  defined  by  Pope  Pius  IX.  in  the  Syllabus  of 
Errors.  Eighty  "errors  and  heresies"  are  con- 
demned, among  which  are  socialism,  communism, 
secret  societies,  Bible  societies,  and  "other  pests  of 
this  description."  The  principles  of  civil  and  reli- 
gious liberty  and  the  separation  of  Church  and  State 
are  condemned.    The  Syllabus  asserts  the  exclusive 

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right  of  the  Roman  Church  to  recognition  by  the 
governments  of  the  world  and  denounces  all  other 
religions  as  unlawful.  It  declares  the  power  of  the 
Roman  Church  to  enforce  its  system,  even  by  coer- 
cion, and  claims  for  Rome  supreme  control  over 
education,  science,  and  literature.  Gladstone  at- 
tacked this  pronouncement  on  the  ground  that  it 
was  "a  declaration  of  war  against  modern  civiliza- 
tion and  progress." 

The  spread  of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  in  Ameri- 
ca began  when  missionaries  accompanied  the  Span- 
ish explorers  soon  after  the  discovery  of  the  conti- 
nent. The  oldest  Catholic  establishment  in  what 
is  now  the  United  States  was  planted  at  St.  Augus- 
tine, Fla.,  about  1565.  Soon  after  this  missionaries 
preached  to  the  Indians  and  founded  missions  in 
Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  California.  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries accompanied  the  French  explorers  down 
the  St.  Lawrence  about  the  region  of  the  Great 
Lakes  and  down  the  Mississippi  basin.  Catholic 
settlements  in  America  by  immigration  began  with 
the  settlement  of  Maryland,  the  only  colony  set- 
tled by  Catholics,  in  1634.  In  nearly  all  the  colonies 
laws  were  enacted  against  the  Catholics,  but  full 
toleration  came  to  all  religions  with  the  setting  up 
of  the  nation.  In  1790  the  Rev.  John  Carroll  was 
consecrated  the  first  bishop  for  America,  and  Balti- 
more became  his  first,  diocese.  The  number  of 
Catholics  in  the  United  States  at  this  period  has 
been  estimated  at  25,000.  This  number  soon  began 
to  receive  large  accessions  by  immigration  from  Eu- 
rope, and  immigration  has  given  the  Roman  Church 
in  this  country  its  largest  growth.     In  the  earlier 

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part  of  the  country's  history  the  heaviest  immigra- 
tion was  from  Northern  and  Western  Europe,  in- 
cluding Ireland,  which  is  almost  entirely  Catholic. 
During  later  years  the  largest  influx  of  foreigners 
has  been  from  Southern  and  Southeastern  Europe, 
where  the  Catholic  population  predominates. 

The  strength,  the  rate  of  growth,  and  the  activity 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States 
at  the  present  time  is  a  matter  of  much  comment, 
and  in  some  quarters  there  is  a  Catholic  issue  in 
politics  and  much  anti-Catholic  feeling,*  The  Of- 
ficial Catholic  Directory  for  1913  gives  the  follow- 
ing figures  for  the  numerical  standing  of  the  Church 
in  this  country:  Archbishops,  16  (of  whom  three 
are  cardinals);  bishops,  100;  priests,  17,945; 
churches  with  resident  priests,  9,500;  missions  with 
churches,  4,812;  seminaries,  85,  with  6,169  students; 
colleges  for  boys,  230;  academies  for  girls,  684; 
parishes  with  schools,  5,256,  with  1,360,761  pupils 
attending;  orphan  asylums  288,  inmates  47,415; 
total  children  in  Catholic  institutions,  1,593,316; 
homes  for  the  aged,  108;  total  Catholic  population, 
15,154,158. 

Concerning  the  figures  for  Catholic  "population," 
Dr.  H.  K.  Carroll,  in  a  note  of  explanation  to  the 
Bulletin  of  Church  Statistics  of  the  Federal  Coun- 
cil of  Churches,  says  Catholic  population  "includes 
with  communicants  the  unconfirmed  baptized — 
that  is,  children  who  have  not  been  admitted  to 
their  first   communion.     The   rule   adopted   in   the 

*For  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  anti-American  aspects  of 
Roman  Catholicism,  see  Dr.  Josiah  Strong's  "Our  Country," 
Chapter  V. 

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census  in  1890  and  followed  in  1906  deducts  fifteen 
per  cent  from  Catholic  population  and  sets  down 
the  remaining  eighty-five  per  cent  as  communi- 
cants." Children  are  admitted  to  the  communion 
between  the  ages  of  nine  and  eleven  years.  In  the 
religious  census  of  1906  the  department  requested 
Catholic  authorities  to  report  actual  communicants 
only  in  order  that  the  reports  for  all  Churches  might 
be  uniform.  The  census  bulletin  for  1906  accord- 
ingly reports  only  Catholic  communicants,  the  num- 
ber for  that  year  being  6,231,417. 

The  Catholic  Directory  gives  a  list  of  the  twenty- 
five  States  having  the  largest  Catholic  population. 
These  are  as  follows : 

New  York  2,884,723     Texas  313,000 

Pennsylvania   1,684,220     Iowa  277,095 

Illinois   1,461,634     Rhode  Island 270,000 

Massachusetts    1,395,892     Maryland    261,000 

Ohio   781,179      Indiana    239,238 

Louisiana    585,000      Kentucky    166,070 

Michigan  582,500      New  Mexico  140,573 

Wisconsin  578,195     Kansas  130,700 

New  Jersey  565,000     New  Hampshire 130,081 

Missouri    470,000     Maine    124,400 

Minnesota    461,950      Nebraska    ii5,959 

Connecticut    438,483      Colorado   109,182 

California   410,000 

The  reported  increase  for  the  year  1913  is  138,- 
000.  The  figures  for  the  United  States  and  all  its 
possessions  make  a  total  of  23,329,000.  The  Philip- 
pines supply  7,131,000  toward  this  total.  The 
United  States  (and  possessions)  stands  up  toward 
the  head  of  the  list  of  Catholic  strongholds  of  the 
world,   as  the   following  figures   show:   Italy,   30,- 

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500,000;  Germany,  23,821,000;  Austria,  23,796,000; 
United  States,  23,329,000;  Spain,  19,503,000;  British 
Empire,  12,968,000.  The  population  of  France  is 
nominally  Roman  Catholic,  Belgium  and  Portugal 
are  Catholic,  and  there  is  a  large  Catholic  following 
in  Russia  (Poland).  The  total  Roman  Catholic 
population  of  the  world  is  given  at  172,860,000 
(World  Almanac). 

Other  Catholic  Bodies. 

Old  Catholics. — The  Old  Catholics  were  organ- 
ized in  Germany  in  1870  as  a  result  of  the  Vatican 
decree  of  papal  infallibility.  The  opponents  of  the 
decree,  headed  by  Dr.  Ignace  von  Dollinger,  a 
Munich  professor,  gathered  at  Nuremberg  and  is- 
sued a  protest.  The  leaders  in  the  movement  were 
promptly  excommunicated.  An  Old  Catholic  con- 
gress was  called,  which  met  in  Munich  in  i87r,  at- 
tended by  about  three  hundred  delegates  from  near- 
ly all  the  countries  of  Northern  and  Western  Eu- 
rope. The  movement  spread  rapidly  in  Germany, 
Switzerland,  Holland,  and  Austria.  There  are 
members  of  the  body  also  in  France,  Spain,  Portu- 
gal, and  Mexico.  The  dogmas  of  papal  infallibility 
and  of  the  imrciaculate  conception  are  rejected,  as 
well  as  the  doctrine  of  priestly  absolution.  Confes- 
sion, indulgences,  and  the  veneration  of  saints  and 
images  have  bee;n  greatly  modified.  Priests  are  al- 
lowed to  marry.  The  Church  has  bishops,  chosen 
by  the  clergy  and  people  together.  The  chief  gov- 
erning body  is  the  synod.  In  the  United  States  the 
Church  has  taken   root  among  the  Polish  and  Bo- 

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hemian  populations,  taking  the  name  among  the 
Poles  of  the  Independent  Catholic  Church  and 
among  the  Bohemians,  particularly  in  Ohio,  of  the 
National  Catholic  Church.  The  Polish  Catholics 
number  about  16,000. 

Uniate  Churches. — These  are  scattered  groups  of 
Churches  which  acknowledge  the  Roman  pontiff, 
but  are  permitted  to  retain  their  traditional  beliefs 
and  practices.  They  are  found  mainly  in  South- 
eastern Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  take  dififerent 
names  according  to  the  language  or  rite  used  in 
their  worship;  as  the  Greek,  Arminian,  Syrian,  or 
Coptic  in  distinction  from  the  Roman,  or  Latin,  rite. 
Their  priests  are  allowed  to  marry,  and  in  other 
respects  they  differ  from  the  customs  of  Rome. 
Their  government  is  provided  for  by  a  special  com- 
mission at  Rome.  Adherents  of  these  Churches  in 
the  United  States  number  about  ten  thousand,  their 
presence  being  due  wholly  to  immigration. 

Reformed  Catholics. — ^These  originated  In  New 
York  City  in  1879,  when  certain  priests  left  the 
Church  of  Rome  on  account  of  their  disbelief  in  the 
Roman  sacramental  system,  embraced  the  Protes- 
tant doctrines,  and  began  evangelistic  work.  Rev. 
James  O'Connor  became  the  leader  of  the  move- 
ment. He  publishes  the  Converted  Catholic.  The 
new  faith  preached  by  these  reformers — and  they 
labor  chiefly  among  Roman  Catholics — Is  that  sal- 
vation is  dependent  upon  faith  In  Christ  alone  and 
that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  the  only  teaching  power  In 
the  Church.  The  movement  has  a  growing  follow- 
ing In  Massachusetts,  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Illnois,  numbering  about  3,500. 

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SALVATION  ARMY. 

The  Salvation  Army  owes  its  origin  to  William 
Booth  and  his  wife,  Catherine  Mumford  Booth, 
who  is  called  the  mother  of  the  Salvation  Army. 
William  Booth  was  successively  a  street  preacher 
in  London,  an  evangelist  in  the  ranks  of  the  Meth- 
odist New  Connection,  and  a  circuit  pastor.  In 
1861  he  severed  his  connection  with  the  Methodists 
and  became  an  independent  evangelist.  His  wife, 
whom  he  married  in  1855,  had  already  become  a 
preacher  and  had  often  occupied  her  husband's  pul- 
pit. Together  they  now  engaged  in  mission  work 
in  the  notorious  East  End  of  London,  where  they 
found  the  destitute,  vicious,  and  neglected  classes. 
They  called  their  work  simply  the  Christian  Mis- 
sion. It  took  the  name  of  Salvation  Army  in  1878 
from  the  statement  used  by  Booth  in  describing  it. 
*'The  Christian  Mission,"  he  said,  "is  a  salvation 
army  of  converted  working  people."  Booth  had 
long  been  called  the  ^'general"  on  account  of  his 
oversight  of  the  work ;  and  after  long  and  careful 
study  of  the  manuals  of  the  British  army,  the  mis- 
sion forces  were  organized  on  a  military  basis. 

In  1880  the  work  was  extended  to  America,  and 
it  has  spread  to  other  lands,  until  now  it  is  repre- 
sented in  fifty-eight  countries  and  colonies  and 
preaches  its  gospel  in  thirty-four  languages.  It  re- 
ports for  the  world  9,415  corps  and  outposts,  1,142 
social  institutions,  572  day  schools,  and  10  naval 
and  military  homes.  The  Army  issues  from  its  own 
presses  81  periodicals,  besides  other  publications. 

The  report  for  the  United  States  for  the  year  end- 
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ing  September  30,  1913,  is  as  follows:  Eight  hun- 
dred and  sixty-nine  corps  and  outposts,  reporting 
47,921  converts.  The  Army  supports  ninety-one 
hotels,  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  industrial 
homes,  twenty-eight  rescue  and  maternity  homes, 
and  five  children's  homes.  Temporary  relief  was 
afforded  to  691,597  persons  outside  of  industrial 
homes  and  hotels.  Summer  outings  were  given  to 
7,791  mothers  and  41,292  children.  The  Army  dis- 
tributed 1,800,645  pounds  of  ice  and  5,010,227  pounds 
of  coal.  There  are  sixteen  posts  in  the  slums  of  the 
cities,  where  the  sick  are  visited  and  persons  tem- 
porarily assisted  to  the  number  of  80,639.  There 
are  also  prison  corps,  which  visited  19,564  prison- 
ers. In  1912  197,099  indoor  meetings  were  held  and 
150,055  outdoor  meetings.  In  the  same  year  Christ- 
mas dinners  were  served  to  281,867  persons  and 
Thanksgiving  dinners  to  20,744. 

The  operations  of  the  Salvation  Army  are  con- 
fined to  the  cities  and  consist  of  evangelistic  work, 
aiming  at  conversion,  and  social,  aiming  at  better- 
ment of  the  condition  of  the  destitute  and  the  crimi- 
nal classes.  Their  converts  may  join  their  own 
ranks,  but  many  of  them  go  into  the  various 
Churches.  The  Army  has  no  ecclesiastical  ma- 
chinery, and  Church  terminology  is  not  used.  Its 
head  is  called  commander  in  chief  (the  present 
commander  is  Bramwell  Booth,  son  of  the  founder). 
The  organization  is  completed  by  a  chief  of  staff, 
stationed  at  headquarters ;  a  lieutenant  general,  who 
travels  and  inspects  divisions ;  a  general,  command- 
ing a  division ;  a  captain,  commanding  a  single 
corps,  who  has  under  him  a  lieutenant,  a  color  ser- 
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geaiit,  a  paymaster  sergeant,  and  other  minor  of- 
ficers. All  officers  wear  uniforms,  and  places  of 
meetings  are  called  barracks.  A  book  of  doctrine 
and  discipline,  prepared  by  the  founder,  outlines  the 
doctrines  to  be  preached,  which  are  in  the  main 
Methodistic,  and  containing  rules  and  regulations 
for  the  government  of  the  body. 

The  headquarters  of  the  Salvation  Army  are  in 
London.  The  headquarters  for  the  American  work 
are  in  New  York,  with  Miss  Evangeline  Booth  in 
charge.  There  is  also  a  Department  of  the  West, 
with  headquarters  in  Chicago. 

Volunteers  of  America. — This  is  an  organization 
formed  in  New  York  City  in  1896  by  Ballington 
Booth,  who  was  commander  of  the  American 
work  of  the  Salvation  Army.  Owing  to  disagree- 
ments with  his  father,  Gen.  William  Booth,  con- 
cerning the  work  in  this  country,  Ballington  Booth 
and  his  wife,  Maude  Ballington  Booth,  separated 
from  the  Salvation  Army  and  organized  the  Vol- 
unteers of  America.  Its  organization  is  based 
upon  that  of  the  United  States  army,  and  its 
government  is  more  democratic.  The  Volun- 
teers are  more  closely  related  to  the  Churches, 
and  they  administer  the  sacraments  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  and  baptism.  The  work  is  among  the  same 
classes  and  along  the  same  lines  as  that  of  the  Sal- 
vation Army,  and  the  forces  of  the  new  organiza- 
tion have  extended  to  all  the  principal  centers  of 
the  United  States.  An  additional  feature  is  the 
Volunteer  Prisoners'  League  for  reforming  prison- 
ers, with  branches  in  thirty  State  prisons.  The 
headquarters  are  in  New  York  City. 

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SCHWENCKFELDERS. 

A  SMALL  body  of  followers  of  Kasper  von 
Schwenckfeld,  a  German  religious  teacher  of 
Luther's  time.  About  two  hundred  Schwenck- 
felders  emigrated  to  America  in  1734  and  settled 
in  Pennsylvania.  The  sect  has  increased  but  slow- 
ly and  still  is  found  only  in  the  counties  in  Penn- 
sylvania where  the  first  members  settled. 

Among  the  peculiar  customs  of  the  Schwenck- 
felders  is  a  service  of  prayer  and  exhortation  over 
newly  born  infants  as  they  are  presented  at  church 
for  the  first  time.  They  are  opposed  to  war,  secret 
societies,  and  the  oaths  of  law.  They  support  mis- 
sions at  home  and  contribute  to  foreign  missions 
through  other  denominations. 

The  body  has  five  ministers,  six  churches,  and 
1,039  members. 


SOCIAL  BRETHREN. 

This  body  was  formed  in  Illinois  after  the  Civil 
War  by  members  of  various  denominations  who 
were  opposed  to  politics  in  the  pulpit.  "It  is  quite 
evident,"  says  Dr.  Carroll,  ''that  the  denomination 
was  originally  formed  of  Baptists  and  Methodists, 
the  ideas  of  both  of  these  denominations  and  some 
of  their  usages  being  incorporated  in  the  new  body." 
But  Methodist  beliefs  and  usage  seem  to  predomi- 
nate, as  among  their  beliefs  is  that  of  the  possibility 
of  apostasy;  also  baptism  may  be  by  pouring, 
sprinkling,  or  immersion,  and  open  communion  is 

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practiced.     They  hold  that  "ministers  are  called  of 
God  to  preach  the  gospel  and  that  only." 

The  body  is  found  only  in  Illinois,  Missouri,  and 
Arkansas.  It  had  by  the  census  of  1906  fifteen  min- 
isters, seventeen  churches,  and  1,262  members. 


SPIRITUALISTS. 

The  first  spiritualistic  "phenomena"  known  in 
this  country  began  to  occur  about  1837  among  the 
Shakers  in  New  York,  who  claimed  to  receive  com- 
munications from  Ann  Lee,  the  departed  founder 
of  the  society.  The  first  demonstrations  that  ex- 
cited public  attention  were  in  the  home  of  John  D. 
Fox,  at  Hydersville,  near  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  whose 
daughters,  the  "Fox  sisters,"  are  generally  credited 
with  being  the  first  mediums.  These  manifestations 
began  in  1848.  It  was  an  era  of  religious  unrest,  of 
strange  doctrines,  visions,  and  miracles.  Belief  in 
ghosts  and  witches  was  common,  and  prophets 
were  numerous.  William  Miller,  the  Adventist 
prophet,  had  summoned  a  doomed  world  to  judg- 
ment, publishing  proofs  that  the  end  would  come 
about  the  year  1843.  Only  a  few  miles  from  the 
Fox  home  Joseph  Smith,  guided  and  attended  by 
visions  of  angels,  had  brought  the  Mormon  Bible  to 
light.  The  popular  mind  was  in  a  state  of  feverish 
expectancy,  ready  to  believe  any  new  thing.  The 
announcement  of  the  wonders  performed  by  the  Fox 
sisters  attracted  crowds  of  people  to  the  seances, 
and  spiritualism  immediately  excited  widespread 
interest   and    investigation.      Circles    were    formed, 

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mediums  discovered,  and  lecturers  traveled  and  dis- 
coursed on  the  latest  discovery. 

The  new  mystery  expressed  itself  in  raps  and 
knockings,  moving  of  furniture,  etc.,  v^hich  were  in- 
terpreted as  the  language  of  the  spirits  of  departed 
persons  endeavoring  to  communicate  with  the  liv- 
ing. Other  methods  of  communication  were 
adopted,  as  slate-writing.  The  movement  became 
so  infected  with  charlatanism  and  fraud  as  to  be 
discredited  by  the  more  intelligent  observers. 

The  study  of  psychology,  hypnotism,  telepathy, 
and  kindred  subjects  has  revived  an  interest  in 
spiritualism,  both  in  this  country  and  Europe,  and 
the  subject  has  attained  more  respectability  on  ac- 
count of  some  of  the  eminent  scientists  and  investi- 
gators Vv^hose  interest  it  has  engaged.  The  late 
William  James,  in  this  country,  and  Sir  William 
Crookes,  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  and  Alfred  Russel  Wal- 
lace, in  England,  have  showr;  a  friendly  interest  in 
the  subject  of  spiritualism. 

Spiritualists  in  this  country  have  formed  them- 
selves into  societies,  with  national  and  State  as- 
sociations, and  have  issued  a  statement  of  beliefs. 
Their  central  tenet  is  a  belief  in  the  actuality  of 
spiritual  communicatons.  They  deny  the  person- 
ality of  God,  holding  that  God  is  an  infinite  intelli- 
gence expressed  by  the  physical  and  spiritual  phe- 
nomena of  nature.  They  reject  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  the  deity  of  Christ,  and  the  supreme  au- 
thority of  the  Scriptures.  They  believe  in  the  con- 
scious existence  of  the  spirit  after  death  and  in  eter- 
nal progress.  In  common  with  the  Universalists, 
they  believe  that  every  individual  will  attain  to  su- 

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HANDBOOK  OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS 

preme  wisdom  and  happiness.  They  have  ordained 
ministers,  lay  ministers,  and  associate  ministers,  or 
mediums.  They  have  a  ritual  for  use  in  public 
meetings,  baptisms,  funerals,  etc. 

The  National  Spiritualists'  Association  was  or- 
ganized in  1893,  with  headquarters  at  Washington, 
D.  C.  There  are  twenty-four  State  associations. 
They  report  six  hundred  active  working  local  socie- 
ties and  four  hundred  societies  which  meet  at  irregu- 
lar intervals.  There  are  thirty-two  camp  meeting 
associations,  200  churches  and  temples,  1,500  public 
mediums,  and  500  ordained  ministers.  As  to  the 
number  of  actual  adherents  of  the  cult,  reports 
vary  widely.  The  religious  census  of  1906  takes 
account  of  45,000  Spiritualists.  The  Bulletin  of  the 
Federal  Council  of  Churches  (1914)  reports  200,000. 
The  statement  of  the  National  Association  of 
Spiritualists  claims  ^'membership  of  avowed  Spirit- 
ualists, 600,000;  unidentified  with  organized  socie- 
ties, but  believers  in  the  philosophy  and  phenomena 
of  spiritualism  and  frequent  attendants  upon  pub- 
lic services,  1,500,000  to  2,000,000."  This  statement 
gives  a  total  valuation  of  church,  temple,  and  camp 
meeting  property  of  $6,000,000. 

Massachusetts  Is  the  banner  Spiritualist  State, 
followed  by  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 


UNITARIANS. 

"Unitarianism,"  to  quote  a  Unitarian  author,  "is, 
in  general,  the  religious  system  of  all  who  affirm  the 
unity  of  God.  Specifically,  It  Is  the  belief  of  certain 
free  Christian  Churches  and  individuals  whose  re- 

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liglous  faith  is  'the  fatherhood  of  God,  the  brother- 
hood of  man,  the  leadership  of  Jesus,  salvation  by 
character,  and  the  progress  of  mankind  onward  and 
upward  forever.' "  Unitarianism  is  popularly 
known  only  in  its  negative  aspects,  in  its  rejection 
of  the  orthodox  views  of  the  Trinity,  the  person  of 
Jesus  Christ,  and  of  the  authority  of  the  Bible. 

Unitarians  point  to  the  Arian  views  of  Jesus,  as 
held  in  the  early  Church,  as  essentially  in  harmony 
with  the  modern  Unitarian  position.  Unitarianism 
may  be  traced  to  the  Reformation  period,  when  in 
the  theological  ferment  of  the  times  anti-Trinitarian 
views  gained  a  following.  Michael  Servetus,  in  the 
West,  assailed  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  was 
burned  at  the  stake  in  Geneva  in  1553.  But  it  was 
Faustus  Socinus,  coming  from  Italy  and  settling  in 
Poland  in  1575,  who  became  the  chief  exponent 
of  Unitarian  doctrines.  The  central  point  in  the 
Socinian  creed  was  denial  of  the  divinity  and  atone- 
ment of  Jesus  Christ.  At  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century  there  were  more  than  four  hundred  Socin- 
ian churches  in  Poland.  By  1670,  however,  Uni- 
tarianism had  been  suppressed  in  Poland  by  the 
accession  of  a  Catholic  king  and  the  adherents  of 
the  faith  put  to  death  or  exiled. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  Socinian  views  leavened 
many  Presbyterian  and  Baptist  Churches  in  Eng- 
land, as  well  as  many  of  the  clergy  of  the  Church  of 
England.  It  was  from  these  communions  that  the 
first  Unitarian  Churches  were  formed.  In  191 1 
there  were  two  hundred  and  ninety-five  Unitarian 
churches  in  England,  seven  in  Scotland,  thirty-four 
in  Wales,  and  thirty-eight  in  Ireland,  the  Churches 

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in  Wales  and  Ireland  having  been  formerly  Presby- 
terian. 

Unitarian  opinions  were  held  by  many  of  the 
Puritan  settlers  of  New  England,  and  a  majority  of 
the  early  Massachusetts  Churches  finally  went  over 
to  the  Unitarian  faith.  King's  Chapel  in  Boston, 
the  first  Episcopal  church  established  in  New  Eng- 
land, in  1787  excluded  from  its  prayer  book  all  ref- 
erences to  the  Trinity  and  to  the  deity  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and,  ordaining  for  its  pastor  James  Freeman, 
a  reader  who  had  adopted  Unitarian  views,  the 
Church  became  the  first  Unitarian  society  in  Ameri- 
ca. During  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  Unitarian  controversy — or  the  Calvinistic  con- 
troversy, according  as  one  views  it — unsettled 
many  of  the  Congregational  Churches  in  Massa- 
chusetts. The  Unitarians  directed  their  criticisms 
mainly  against  the  Calvinistic  view  of  man's  fallen 
nature.  In  1805  a  Unitarian  was  appointed  to  the 
divinity  chair  of  Harvard  College,  and  that  insti- 
tution came  completely  under  the  control  of  liberal 
views.  In  1819  William  Ellery  Channing  preached 
a  sermon  at  the  dedication  of  a  Unitarian  church  in 
Baltimore  which,  on  account  of  its  "moral  argu- 
ment against  Calvinism,"  became  a  Unitarian 
classic.  Within  a  year  one  hundred  and  twenty 
Congregational  Churches  in  New  England,  among 
them  Plymouth  Church,  founded  in  1620,  went  over 
to  Unitarianism. 

The  Unitarians  as  a  denomination  have  rejected 
all  suggestions  of  creed-forming;  but  the  National 
Unitarian  Conference  has  declared  that  "these 
Churches  accept  the  religion  of  Jesus,  holding  in 

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accordance  with  his  teaching  that  practical  reHgion 
is  summed  up  in  love  to  God  and  love  to  man." 
Unitarian  congregations  usually  adopt  the  follow- 
ing covenant:  'In  the  love  of  truth  and  the  spirit  of 
Jesus  Christ  we  unite  for  the  worship  of  God  and 
the  service  of  man."  Unitarians  are  generally  In 
agreement  on  the  doctrines  of  the  "pure  humanity 
of  Jesus,"  and  his  ''leadership"  is  accepted,  he  being 
"a  supreme  Instance  of  man's  religious  experience 
of  God  and  an  inspiring  prophet  of  a  free  and  spirit- 
ual religion  of  love  to  God  and  man."  It  is  the  faith 
of  Jesus  that  is  held  rather  than  faith  in  Jesus. 
The  Bible  Is  not  a  final  and  infallible  guide  in  re- 
ligious truth,  but  "a  classic  record  of  man's  religious 
experience,"  and  is  to  be  interpreted  in  the  light  of 
reason  and  conscience.  *Tt  is  not  proper  to  say  that 
we  reject  the  Bible,"  says  a  Unitarian  minister,  "as 
it  is  not  proper  to  say  that  we  reject  a  fish  because 
we  discard  the  bones."  Unitarians  reject  the  ortho- 
dox doctrines  of  the  fall  of  man,  of  the  natural  cor- 
ruption of  his  nature,  and  of  the  atoning  or  sacri- 
ficial character  of  the  death  of  Christ  as  a  means  of 
man's  recovery.  They  discover  no  need  of  a  media- 
tor between  God  and  man.  But  they  affirm  the 
natural  dignity  of  human  nature  and  the  kinship  of 
man  to  God.  Salvation  is  the  enjoyment  of  com- 
munion with  God,  "the  soul  fulfilling  its  destiny  of 
enjoying  the  constant  indwelling  presence  of  God 
with  a  consciousness  like  that  of  Christ."  It  Is  to 
be  sought  and  gained  "through  the  exercise  of  the 
soul's  highest  powers  and  the  repression  of  all  low 
desires." 

There  is  no  later  report  of  Unitarian  numbers 

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than  the  census  bulletin  of  1906.  They  are  credited 
with  531  ministers,  477  churches,  and  70,542  mem- 
bers. The  body  has  theological  schools  at  Meade- 
ville,  Pa.,  and  Berkeley,  Cal.  The  Harvard  Divinity 
School  was  Unitarian  from  1817  to  1878,  since  which 
time  it  has  been  undenominational.  About  one- 
half  of  the  Unitarian  membership  of  the  country  Is 
in  Massachusetts.  New  York,  California,  New 
Hampshire,  and  Maine  has  each  a  large  member- 
ship. 


UNITED  BRETHREN. 

This  denomination  Is  often  confounded  with  the 
Moravian  Brethren,  or  Unitas  Fratrem;  but  the  two 
bodies  are  separate  and  distinct.  While  they  bear 
similar  names  and  both  originated  among  German 
people,  the  Unitas  Fratrem  originated  in  Moravia 
and  the  LTnited  Brethren  arose  in  the  United  States, 
although  the  former  had  a  footing  in  this  country 
more  than  half  a  century  before  the  latter  organi- 
zation took  Its  rise. 

Philip  William  Otterbein  came  to  America  in 
1752  as  a  missionary  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church.  Soon  afterwards  he  obtained  what  he  re- 
garded as  his  first  Christian  experience,  and  his 
ministry  took  on  a  deeply  spiritual  and  evangelistic 
character.  Revivals  followed  his  preaching,  and  he 
was  joined  by  many  of  his  converts  in  extending 
the  work.  The  movement  continued  to  spread,  and, 
on  account  of  opposition  to  the  work  in  his  own 
Church,  conferences  were  called  to  provide  means 
for  conserving  the   results.     At  a  conference  held 

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in  Frederick  County,  Md.,  in  1800  a  Church  organi- 
zation was  formed,  taking  the  name  of  the  United 
Brethren  in  Christ.  Otterbein  and  Martin  Boehm 
were  elected  bishops.  In  1815  a  general  confer- 
ence was  held,  at  which  a  discipline  and  a  Confes- 
sion of  Faith  were  adopted.  During  the  first  years 
of  the  movement  the  work  was  confined  mainly  to 
the  German  people  of  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Maryland ;  but  in  later  years  the  Church  spread 
westward  and  was  extended  among  English-speak- 
ing people.  Now  the  German  language  is  used  in 
only  about  four  per  cent  of  the  congregations. 

The  founders  of  the  United  Brethren  Church 
were  in  intimate  association  with  the  pioneers  of 
Methodism  in  America.  Otterbein  assisted  at  the 
ordinations  of  Methodist  ministers  at  the  Baltimore 
Conference  in  1784,  and  in  his  evangelistic  labors 
he  preached  the  same  doctrines  and  proceeded  in 
much  the  same  way  as  the  Methodist  preachers. 
In  doctrine  and  polity  the  Church  which  he  organ- 
ized is  Methodistic,  and  the  body  is  represented  in 
the  Methodist  ecumenical  councils.  The  Church 
has  bishops,  presiding  elders,  exhorters,  class  lead- 
ers, and  stewards;  also  quarterly,  annual,  and  gen- 
eral conferences.  Bishops  are  elected  for  a  four- 
year  tenure.  Since  1889  women  are  eligible  for  the 
ministry.  But  one  order  of  ministers,  that  of  elder, 
is  recognized.  The  mode  of  baptism  is  left  to  the 
choice  of  the  candidate.  Foot-washing  is  practiced, 
but  is  not  generally  observed.  Ministers  are  ap- 
pointed to  their  charges  by  a  stationing  committee, 
and  presiding  elders  are  elected  by  the  annual  con- 
ferences. 

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A  new  constitution  and  a  revised  Confession  of 
Faith  were  adopted  by  the  General  Conference  In 
1889.  Provision  was  made  for  lay  representation 
in  the  General  Conference,  and  a  rule  was  set  aside 
forbidding  membership  In  secret  societies.  A  bishop 
and  fourteen  delegates,  taking  offense  at  the  new 
constitution,  withdrew  from  the  body  and  organized 
another  General  Conference,  which  claimed  to  rep- 
resent the  sentiment  of  the  Church.  The  division 
extended  throughout  the  Church.  Litigation  over 
property  division  followed,  resulting  in  a  decision 
against  the  seceding  body.  The  Churches  are  now 
known  as  the  "New  Constitution"  and  the  "Old 
Constitution"  branches.  The  New  Constitution 
body  has  foreign  missions  In  Germany,  Japan, 
Canada,  and  Africa,  ten  colleges,  and  a  theological 
seminary  and  a  publishing  house  at  Dayton,  Ohio. 
The  Church  is  divided  into  about  fifty  Annual  Con- 
ferences and  mission  districts,  has  (1914)  1,953 
ministers,  3,583  churches,  and  322,044  members, 
showing  a  gain  for  the  year  of  13,457.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  Old  Constitution  Church  are  at 
Huntingdon,  Ind.,  where  they  have  a  college  and 
publishing  house.  This  branch  has  307  ministers, 
503  churches,  and  20,972  members. 

The  United  Brethren  are  strong  In  the  States  of 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  West  Virginia,  Illi- 
nois, Iowa,  and  Kansas. 


UNIVERSALISTS. 

The  Unlversallsts  as  a  religious  denomination  are 
a  decadent  body.     The  reports  for  1912,  the  latest 

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figures  obtainable,  compared  with  the  census  re- 
ports of  1906,  show  a  decrease  in  number  of  organi- 
zations of  two  hundred  and  forty-seven.  There  has 
been  a  shght  increase  in  membership  during  the 
period.  But,  according  to  a  UniversaHst  writer, 
"that  the  course  of  the  Church  as  a  separate  body 
is  nearly  run  is  a  not  uncommon  opinion."  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  claimed  that  UniversaHst  opinion 
is  largely  on  the  increase  and  that  there  are  more 
Universalists  outside  the  denomination  than  inside. 
The  claim  is  made  that  all  Christian  Scientists  hold 
the  UniversaHst  doctrine;  that  the  same  is  true  of 
more  than  one-half  of  the  Unitarians,  one-third  of 
the  Episcopalians,  and  many  Congregationalists ; 
and  that  there  are  numerous  believers  in  this  doc- 
trine in  nearly  all  denominations.  It  is  known  that 
all  the  British  and  Continental  Unitarians  are  also 
Universalists  in  opinion. 

Universalists,  while  holding  a  great  variety  of 
doctrines,  are  agreed  in  the  belief  that  all  souls  will 
be  finally  reconciled  to  God  and  made  righteous. 
This  universal  salvation  is  to  be  accomplished  by 
Jesus  Christ,  the  great  revealer  of  God,  whose  work 
in  the  world  is  to  bring  men  into  harmony  with 
God.  There  is  no  place  found  in  UniversaHst  the- 
ology for  a  satisfaction  theory  of  Christ's  death  or 
for  a  work  of  atonement.  Salvation  is  not  exemp- 
tion from  the  consequences  of  sin,  but  from  the  dis- 
position to  sin.  Punishment  is  an  inevitable  se- 
quence of  sin,  is  divinely  appointed,  and  is  remedial 
and  beneficent;  whence  it  follows  that  it  cannot  be 
endless,  for  endless  punishment  would  be  vindictive. 
Souls  that  are  not  made  holy  in  this  life  will  be 

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visited  by  punishment  and  discipline  in  the  next 
life,  calculated,  as  it  is  in  the  present  life,  to  re- 
cover and  to  restore  the  soul.  It  is  held  that  there 
are  many  "losing  fights"  in  this  life  and  that  souls 
are  "lost"  in  the  sense  of  being  excluded  after  death, 
as  here,  from  the  presence  of  God;  but  it  is  main- 
tained that  the  soul  "will  fight  until  it  wins"  and 
that  throughout  its  conflict  it  will  have  the  as- 
sistance of  the  heavenly  powers. 

The  Winchester  Profession  of  Faith,  adopted  at 
Winchester,  N.  H.,  in  1803,  sets  forth  the  essential 
principles  of  the  Universalist  faith  as  embracing 

1.  The  universal  fatherhood  of  God. 

2.  The  spiritual  authority  and  leadership  of  his 
Son,  Jesus  Christ. 

3.  The  trustworthiness  of  the  Bible  as  containing 
a  revelation  from  God. 

4.  The  certainty  of  just  retribution  for  sin. 

5.  The  final  harmony  of  all  souls  with  God. 
During  the  first  one  hundred  years  Universalist 

churches  were  independent  and  congregational. 
Since  1870  a  general  convention,  which  meets  bien- 
nially, has  had  authority  to  govern  the  Churches  in 
matters  of  fellowship,  ordination,  and  discipline. 
There  are  now  also  State  conventions,  meeting  an- 
nually. A  system  of  State  and  general  superintend- 
ency  has  been  adopted.  The  sacraments  are  ob- 
served, the  mode  of  baptism  being  left  to  the  choice 
of  the  candidate.  The  denomination  carries  on  mis- 
sionary work  in  Japan  and  maintains  four  colleges 
and  five  academies,  also  three  theological  schools. 

In  1912  there  were  702  ministers,  709  churches, 
and   51,716  members,   found  mainly  in   New  York 

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and  Massachusetts,  with  Maine,  Illinois,  and  Ohio 
next  in  membership.  The  report  for  1914  shows  a 
decrease  of  fifty-two  ministers  and  a  gain  of  eight 
churches  and  two  hundred  and  eighty-four  mem- 
bers for  the  two  years. 

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